• middle ages: characterized by overlapping layers of religious and secular authorities
• political societies not strictly territorial: very fluid system with shifting allegiances
• Thirty Years War: religious war between protestants and catholics, also political about authority in Europe
• ended in the formation of the treaty of Westphalia

• german states gained right to conduct their own diplomatic relations
• German states were greanted  an exact and reciprocal right to equality with other states
• German states were granted control over their internal and external affairs

• Peace of Westphalia allowed for territorial soveriegnty
• - the principle that within its territoral boundaries the state is the supremem political authority, and that putside those boundaries the state recognizes no higher political authority
• onset of the dismantling of the medieval fuedal system

• suggests that Westphalia may have helped to create order in Europe but creaated instability everywhere else
• Spanish and Portuguese lay claim to the Americas
• Treaty of Tordesilles: divides newly discovered lands between Portugal and Spain
• enables intra European prder by settlin the dispute between Spain and Protugal
• Enables European Expansion into the "new" world by easing tensions and resolving claims

• ends WWI
• leads to the establishment of the league of nations
• the league is part of a liberal manifesto, Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
• Fourteen Points: designed to guide the peace process
• Influences by Immanuel Kant and Richard Cobden

• Perpetual Peace:
• 1. The civil consititution of every state shall be republican(democracy)
• 2. the right of nations shall be based on a federation of free states
• 3. Cosmopolitan right shall be limited to conditions of universal hospitality
• Influence: Democratic Peace Theory(DPT)- democratic countries do not generally go tp war with each other

• Free trade
• free trade would create a more peaceful world, by offering mutual benefits to all participants
• Absolute gains: both come away with something, this making both better off
• Influenece: Free trade agreements

• Absolute freedom of navigation upon seas, outside territorial waters
• Removal of economic barriers and the establishment of equality of trade conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance
• general associatin of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike

• 1. Citizens are equal before the law
• 2. The authority of a legilsative assembly rests in the authority granted to it by the people: i.e democratic states
• 3. A key right of the individual is to pwn property for productive reasons: capitalism, maximization of profits through resources
• 4. The most effective economic system is one driven by the free market

Liberalism of Privilege

• argues that problems associated with globalization need to be addressed by a combination of strong democratic states, robust regimes and open markets/institutions

• the more the West becomes involved in developing states poltical/ economic development, the less those states are able to be accountable to their own populations
• to qualify for loans from international institutions, developing states must agree to strict terms and conditions that can exacerbate social problems
• inflexibility of international institutions is resulting in a backlash against them
• Radicals suggest:
• democratize international society(not all states have the same voice)
• exoand role of non state actors

• 1. Statism: assumption that the main actors of the international relations are states; especially the Great Powers
• 2.Survival: the assumption that the anarchic structure of the international system compels "Hobbesian" states to seek out their survival through the maximization of power and security
• 3. Self-Help: states must rely on themselves to generate their own security; results in the security dilemma

• Statism: there are challenges form above and below the state, soveriegn states cannot alone reslove collectove action problems like famine, disease etc
• Survival: becomes a catch all to justify all things terrible- i.e Hitler's need for "breathing room"
• Self-Help: self help is a logic adopted by states, there are examples of states forging partnerships instead of self-help

• growing class cleavages despite increases in wealth
• Relationships of exploitation
• onset of the capitalist system
• economic acceleration backed by new technologies 

• 1. Division of society into classes: Proletariat, middle class, bourgeosie
• 2. Pre eminence of class: class is the defining feature of one's status and identity
• 3. Inequality of class: division of classes bespeaks inequality
• 4. Bias of the state:state favours the bourgeoisie, state percieves its interests as connected to capitalism

• 1. Totality: the View that the social world needs to be analyzed as a whole
• 2. Historical Materialism: the idea that processes of historical change are a reflection of economic development, the main dynamic between the meanss of production and relations of production; when means of production chnage so to the relations of production; leads to social change(base-superstructure)
• 3. Class: Whereas liberals perceive harmony of slef interest between different classes- Marxists percieve conflict " class struggle"
• 4. Emancipation: the researcher must not remain an impartial observer of the conflict between capital and labour but rather to engage in the struggle

• rich countries depend on poor countries staying poor

• concerned with whu communist revolution had proven difficult in Western Europe
• argues that power is a mix of coercion and consent
• Coercion may be a key feature of less developed states, but advanced capitalist states maintain power through the hegemony of consent

• began in mid 20th century America
• - view became that realism/liberalism lacked scientific credibility
• positivism is adopted as the preffered scientific approach(Comte)
• 1. there are objective truths to the social world
• 2. these truths can be proved through scientific methods that focus on impartial analysis
• leads to the behaviouralism revolution

• 1. States interact in an anarchic system
• 2. The structure of the anarchic system is the principal determinant of state behaviour
• 3. All states are self interested rationalactors
• 4. Under anarchy, states are primarily concerned with their survival: assume other states are self-interested and threats
• 5. To ensure survival, states pursue power/security

• Classical realism :Inductive reasoning: bottom up logic that evaluates general propositions from speciific examples
• Neo-realism: deductive reasoning: top down loogic that draws specific confclusions from general propositions

• classical: interprets power as an end in itself, ex states use power to gain more power
• Neo: interprests power as a tool to achieve a position in the international system

• classical: argue that states behave differently according to various factors: size, location, domestic politics etc
• Neo: argue that states are functionally similar units( explains why some states behave similarly internationally despite being very diffferent domestically)

• International actors operate within an anarchic system
• 2. Actors are rational and seek to maximize benefits/ minimize losses
• 3. Actors include states and non-state actors. who maximize benefits through cooperation(absolute gains)
• 4. Cooperation is never perfect, but states will commit to institutions, when they percieve value in them
• 5. Greatest obstacles to cooperatopn is non compliance/cheating/ free-loader states

• Defensive: states recognize that costs of war outweigh benefits of war, states are security seekers, not power seekers
• Offensive: states recognize that conflict is inevitable in a system defined by competiton, state recognize that is is better to be on top, states are power seekers, not security seekers

• Constructivism rises becase:
• 1. the end of the cold war opens a new conceptual space
• 2. Constructivism addressed social phenomena
• 3. Constructivism adopts a " perfect blend of: Rationalism, and Sociological theory

• Rejects the unity of science thesis: the idea that the methods of  the natural sciences are applicable to the social world
• Constructivists argue that the objects of the physical and social world are different: in the social world the subject knows him/herself through reflection upon their experiences
• Constructivism is committed to causation but notes that the system is not void: the system can be a casual factor in state behaviour, but it is its social content that influences this behaviour not the structure itself

• Constructivists believe in 
• 1. Idealism: takes the ideas/ perspectives  seriously in world politics
• Holism: assumes that the world is wholy social and cannot be divided into parts; agents may influence social behaviour but they canot change it individually
• 2. Actors are not born in a vaccuum, they are socialized, Reality does not exist independently of our social influences; reality is culturally and socially bound, reality is treated as a social fact

• Ontology: the assumptions a theory makes about reality
• Epistemology: the assumptions a theory makes about knowledge
• Methodology: the assumptions a theory makes about the acquisition of knowledge

• language is how we make sense of the world, and it is inherently social- we cannot make our views understandable to others without a shared set of understandings
• words are coded with meaning
• language is a set of codes, words can only make sense in the context of others
• deconstruction seeks to break down terms by understanding their composition of meaning

• Stretching:the idea that a local event somewhere will have an impact elsewhere
• Magnitude: the idea that interconectedness is intensifying in virtually all spheres
• Acceleration: the idea that the speed of communications and transportation technology is increasing rapidly
• Extensity, intensity, and velocity: the idea that the growing enmeshment of the global and local is resulting in a growing global consciousness 

• " a historical process  involving a fundamental shift or transformation in the spatial scale of human social organization that links distant communities and expands the reach of power relations across regions and continents"

• territoriality: borders and territory are still relevant, but globalization is resulting in a new distribution of powers that transcends borders
• order and sovereignty:sovereignty is being transformed but not necessarily eroded, sovereignty is increasingly a shared exercise of public power between national, regional, and global authorities
• order and autonomy: must engage in multilateral co-operation with non state and state actors, less autonomy

• 1. the world is actually less globalized than it used to be
• 2. The world is more regionalized, but not globalized
• 3. Economic/ political activity is concentrated in Western states
• 4. Key features of traditional international politics are more important, not less
• 5. Globalization is a myth that obscures Western Capitalism
• 6. Responses to global crises highlight the continued role of the state

• Freedom from threat to one's core values/identity
• National Security: the state
• Human security: the individual

• Statism: the assumption that states are the primary actor of international relations
• Survival: the assumption that the aim of all states is to survive under anarchy
• Self-help: the assumption that anarchy forces all states to rely on themselves

• States are the primary actors
• the problem of anarchy
• self-interest
• rationality
• survival

• national security's focus on states removes the question of gender 
• feminism seeks to incorporate gender to highlight the hidden impacts of conflict on women
• Rape, Refugees-> mostly women and children

• the referent object of security moves from the state to the individual
• security is viewed as a multi dimensional concept encompassing a range of different issues
• security becomes universal in scope, everyone can claim to security
• 7 areas: Economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community, political

• establishes:
• IMF: establish stable exchange rates that ensure predictability, provide emergency assistance to countries facing crisis in their balance of payments
• World Bank: facilitate private investment and reconstruction in Europe, Assist in the development of other countries
• GATT->WTO: provide a forum for negotiations on trade liberalization
• CRITIQUE: western bias(Marshall Plan:USA commits large economic aid to the reconstruction of Europe, Gold Standard: countries fix their exchange rate to the US dollar)

• Monetary system: industrialized states no longer coordinate their exchange rate policies in the IMF
• Trading system: states begin to mve toward more protectionist policies
• Global System: low- income states begin to make calls for greater representation in major institutions

• policies aimed at inflation can stall growth and employment, policies aimed at growth and employment can worsen inflation
• Solution: free trade, privitization, Adam Smiths "invisible hand"

• GATT was a space for states to negotiate and extend tariffs bilaterally, to third parties
• With enteru of decolonized states to the international system this became overly complex
• WTO established to better govern international trade, ensuring compliance to trade rules/norms/values as a condition of entry
• Least developed countries join WTO to seek foreign investment to help build economic infrastructure, as well as a way of signalling to the world their committment to free market policies
• Advanced economies join WTO to make the process less cumbersome/costly, it is a platform to shape the architecture of the global trade norms, AE's have most power in WTO because most trade goes through them
• power is exercised through a voting system

•  both organizations attach conditions to their loans, meaning that politicians have to ignore their electorate in favour of meeting these demands
• Social- democratic governments have begun to shift to the right on monetary issues to ensure access to these loans
• Structural Adjustment Policies(SAP's): reduce inflation, government expenditure and the size of the governments role in the economy

• cause democratic deficit
• buy and sell international currencies and are semi resistant to domestic shocks

• emanates from the world economic system of the post 1945 period
• defines poverty as the unfilled material needs of people(food, water, shelter); suggests that poverty is an economic condition
• Poverty is thus percieved to be located within the global south
• global north percieves it as an external problem
• has led to the view that the north must FIX the south throughits economic policies
• however, poverty is a growing feature of the global north as well
• Orthodox Development: Integrate local economies into the global economy, top down, large capital investments, expansion of private sphere

• Poverty is about unfulfilled material and non material needs(food,culture)
• Income poverty(material wealth)
• Human poverty(dignity, agency, opportunity)
• Western economic models are percieved as inadequate and potentially destructive(IMF policies)
• SOLUTION: create human well-being through sustainable societies, bottom up and participatory, fulfillment of basic human needs and cultural empowerment

• For offensive realists the highest aim of the state is to achieve security through the acquisition of power, but the exercise of power in war is the failure of security

• to avoid conflict, states create institutions: a set of norms, rules, and practices created by states and other actors to facilitate social order
• 3 types of institutions:
• Constitutional institutions: primary rules and norms of international society without which the system could not work(soveriegnty)
• Fundamental institutions: provide basic norms and practices to facilitate coexistence and cooperations under anarchy(multilaterlism)
• Issue specific institutions/regimes: the rules, norms, and decision making procedures used to define who/what constitutes a legitimate actor/action( Ottawa Convention)

• Linear Projection: an adaptation of European norms(Hugo Grotius)
• The constitution of European norms, values, and institutions through colonial relations between Europeans and non Europeans (Francisco de Vitoria)

• the right to rule was believed to originate with God, who provided Kings/Queens a divine mandate
• because the right to rule came from God, laws established by Kings/Queens were percieved as being derivative of God's will
• TOP DOWN

• the belief that authority originated with God was challenged by the rise of liberalism and nationalism
• the right to rule emanates from the people, this secularizes by locating political/legal authority within the people
• BOTTOM UP

• Peace of Westphalia, 1648: Introduces territorial sovereignty after the Thirty Years War
• Treaties of Utrecht, 1713: Consolidates territorial sovereignty after the wars of Spanish Succession
• Treaty of Paris, 1814: Establishes the Congress of Vienna and the balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars
• Treaty of Versailles, 1919: Introduces the League of Nations after WWI
• Charter of the United Nations, 1945: Limits violence to self-defence and collective peace enforcement after WWII
• Declaration on granting independence to colonial countries and peoples,1960: Plays a critical role in defining the principle of self determination and facilitating decolonisation, during the Cold War

• International law is both formal and informal
• Informally: it has evolved through things like norm socialization between multiple actors
• Formally: it has evolved through multilateral negotiation involving three or more states

• Consent is a primary obligation of states: without it there are no laws
• 1. States are bound by rules which they have formally consented to, such as those created through customary international law
• 2. As a source of obligation, consent is philosophically difficult to justify

• international law is distinctive in its line of argument, and its expression
• Rhetorical: despite the notion that international law is objective and clear cut, it is very rhetorical because so much of it relies on the interpretation of text
• Analogical: International law often tries to establish similarities between different cases despite dissimilarities, in an effort to justify/establish a basis for an argument (Precedent)

• the idea that politics and law reside in two distinct domains
• the distinction is made to make international law more functional by removing politics from consideration
• is this realistic?

• A set of principles, norms, rules and decision making procedures that states and other actors accept as authoritative in a given area
• Civil and political rights: provide legal protections against abuse by state power, and seek to ensure the political participation of all citizens
• Economic, social, cultural rights: Guarantee individuals access to essential goods and services, and seek to ensure equal social and cultural participation
• Human Rights are indivisible and Interdependent

• Perodic State Reports: Reports submitted to the UN by states, leading to a dialogue between the UN committe responisble and the state
• Critique: the committee has no authority to determine the extent of compliance, the committee cannot even judge the adequacy of state responses, the committee must accept reports at face value

• enables "individuals to complain about the violationof their rights in an international arena"
• Critique: an opt-in provision is needed for individual complaints to be hears, if a state opts in the committee can only say if they believe a violation has occured, and has no authority to act

Human Rights:Multilateral Mechanisms( Universal Periodic Review)

• involves a review of human rights records of all UN Member States.State-driven process under the auspices of the Human Rights Council, which provides the opportunity for each State to declare what actions they have taken to improve the human rights situations in their countries and to fulfil their human rights obligations
• Critique: because states review the Universal Periodic Review, the review is often superficial and overly optimistic

• governed by the Rome Statute it is the first permanent, treaty based international criminal court established to help end impunity for the perpetrators of the most serious crimes of concern to the international community
• Critique: The ICC has a very narrow mandate and has only been used a handful of times