Chapter 6:

Learning

What is learning?

--A relatively permanent behavior change

(or change in mental processes)

as a result of experience

How do we learn?

(What are the 2 types of conditioning?)

Classical Conditioning

and

Operant Conditioning

What kind of stimuli are there

in Classical Conditioning?

--Neutral Stimulus (NS)

--Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

--Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Tell me about the

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) was the bell after it was associated with the food so that if the dog heard the bell, he would connect it to food and start to salivate.

Remember: the Conditioned Stimulus is the Neutral Stimulus after conditioning takes place.

The Conditioned Stimulus is the lightning after association between the lightning and the loud noise which makes the woman react if she just sees the lightning.  

Remember: the Conditioned Stimulus is the Neutral Stimulus after conditioning takes place.

The Unconditioned Response to one stimulus becomes the Conditioned Response to another.

In other words,

salivating at seeing food (unconditioned response) becomes salivating at hearing a bell

(conditioned response).

A Conditioned Response (CR) is a learned response.

It's the result of connecting a stimulus that used to be neutral (like ringing a bell) to a stimulus that causes an unconditioned response (like salivating when food is presented) so that this stimulus (the bell) now causes the same response (salivating, but without having to present food).

1.   Acquisition

2.   Extinction

3.   Spontaneous recovery

4.   Generalization

5.   Discrimination

What is

Acquisition?

Acquisition is the first stage of conditioning.

It is when the

neutral stimulus (the bell)

is connected to an unconditioned stimulus (salivating at food),

so that the unconditioned stimulus (salivating)

will turn into a

conditioned stimulus

(salivating at the bell).

Conditioning prepares us for good and bad events,

so we know what's coming.

How can a conditioned response help us?

It lets us know what's going to happen.  It lets us move toward a good thing and away from a bad thing.  If you hear the fridge door open, you think

"Yay! Food!".  

If you hear something heavy fall, you think

"Oh no!  What just broke?"

A passionate kiss causes sexual arousal.  

Onion breath does NOT cause sexual arousal.  

But if onion breath is paired with a passionate kiss and results in sexual arousal, then just smelling onion breath can cause sexual arousal;

the passionate kiss isn't needed. 

When the conditioned response dies off.

In the onion breath/sexual arousal example,

describe what extinction would mean.

If onion breath isn't

regularly paired with passionate kisses, it could lose its effect of producing sexual arousal.  

The conditioned response to onion breath (sexual arousal)

stops happening.

What is discrimination

(in psychological terms)?

Give an example of discrimination relating to being afraid of dogs.

Describe Pavlov's legacy

(the useful information he left behind as a result of his experiments).

Pavlov's legacy has 2 parts:

1.  He found that many responses to stimuli can be conditioned in many animals, which is how almost every animal learns to adapt to its environment.

2. He showed that learning can be studied objectively; it's a science not something magical.

Describe how Pavlov's work helped us understand emotions

(use the example of the child and the white rat).

Associative learning

and

Cognitive learning

What is B.F. Skinner

famous for?

His work on operant conditioning.

He designed an "operant chamber" which we just call a Skinner box.

Describe two or three successive approximations

of Sadie learning how to be quiet.

First, Sadie barks a lot and then stops when we say "Quiet".  

Then she only barks a few times and stops.

Then she only barks once.

Positive reinforcers (strengthen a response when added, like a reward)

Negative reinforcers (strengthen a response when removed, like stopping an electric shock )

Paying them.

Saying "Good job!"

Telling them you'll tell others about them.

What's the key thing to remember about negative reinforcement?

It's important to remember that negative reinforcement means STOPPING A NEGATIVE STIMULUS.

It is not a punishment, but a release from something negative. 

Working hard all week in order to get a paycheck.

Cleaning your room so Mom is pleased and smiles at you.

Buying your boyfriend a gift so that he likes you more.

1.  Fixed-ratio schedule

2.  Variable-ratio schedule

3.  Fixed-interval schedule

4.  Variable-interval schedule

We give Sadie the first treat after she's quiet 3 times in a row.

The next time she gets a treat is after 2 times.

The next time she gets a treat is after 6 times, etc.

What kind of response pattern does a fixed-interval schedule produce:

a) choppy start-stop pattern

b) slow, steady pattern

1.  Punished behavior is suppressed (not done) but not forgotten so may not be effective.

2.  Punishment teaches discrimination (example: we can swear at home, but not in public).

3.  Punishment creates fear.

4.  Physical punishment can make a child more aggressive/violent.

1.  Physical punishment gets kids to stop the behavior at that moment, but may not put an end to the behavior in general because the kids didn't really learn anything.

2.  Physical punishment makes kids afraid.

3.  Physical punishment can make kids more violent.

1.  A light hit can be used as back-up if a more gentle method has failed.

2.  A light hit paired with explaining things to the child can be reinforcing. 

Reinforcement tells you what to do.

Punishment tells you what not to do;

Skinner's work was very useful.  

How can it be applied to getting kids to do well in school?

Contrast Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning:

Basic idea of each?

Classical Conditioning:

The learning associations between events we don't control

Operant Conditioning:

The learning associations between our own behavior and its consequences

Contrast Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning:

What kinds of responses?

Classical Conditioning:

Responses are involuntary, automatic

Operant Conditioning:

Responses are voluntary, operate on environment

Contrast Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning:

Describe how extinction works.

Classical Conditioning:

The conditioned response decreases when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented alone.

Operant Conditioning:

The response decreases when the reinforcement stops

Contrast Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning:

Classical Conditioning:

A conditioned response that has been extinguished comes back after a rest period.

Operant Conditioning:

The same as for Classical Conditioning.

Contrast Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning:

Classical Conditioning:

Responding to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning:

Responses to similar stimuli are also reinforced

Contrast Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning:

Classical Conditioning:

Learning to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning:

1.  Natural selection--Nature choosing which organisms survive based on which have traits (characteristics) that are best adapted to the environment.

2.  Each species is naturally prepared to learn what is necessary for its survival.

Limits on Operant Conditioning:

Would an animal be more or less likely to learn a behavior that it naturally associates with the situation?  Give an example relating to pigeons.

the view that 

1) psychology should be an objective science,

2) psychology should study behavior without reference to mental processes/emotions.

Which part of Behaviorism do most modern psychologists agree that:

1)  psychology should be an objective science

2)  psychology should be limited to studying behavior without considering the influences of thoughts and emotions

Behaviorism underestimates

1)  how biological predispositions limit our learning, in other words, ways that our bodies/minds are just programmed to work (example: an alcoholic thinks differently) and

2) how our cognitive processes, in other words our thoughts/emotions, affect learning (example: saying "I suck at math" will probably result in poor math grades).  

Rats who got experience running a maze 

1) developed a cognitive map (a map in their heads) of the maze, and

2)  showed learning about the maze that they had not shown before 

How can you remember the difference between 

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

Look at the first two letters:

"in" shows that the motivation come from INside of you.

"ex" means that the motivation comes from outside of you.  (a way to remember that is that your "ex" wants you to do it).  

:-D

Describe

observational learning, and give an example of it. 

Observational learning is when learning is accomplished by watching, not by being directly engaged in the activity.

An example could be that a child learns to put his napkin on the chair when he leaves the table because that's what his Dad always do.