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| Social process by which culture is learned and transmitted |
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| Exploration of human diversity in time and space |
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| Four sub-fields of Anthro |
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| Linguistic, Archaeology, Sociocultural Anthro, Physical/Biological Anthro |
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| Descriptive account of a community/society/culture |
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| Highly descriptive holistic description |
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| Problem-oriented. Less holistic and more focused on an issue |
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| Examines analyzes and compares the results of ethnographies. Goal: to make generalizations about society and culture |
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| Humanities approach to Anthro |
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| Provide readers with empathic understanding of a society. Reduce perception of cultural differences |
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| Social Science approach to anthro |
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| provide plausible and reliable explanations of social processes. provide culturally-nuanced perspectives that can guide plicies and developmental intiatives |
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| We were all once civilized but after dispersing (tower of babel) some degenerated and some remained civilized |
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| Humanity advances from primitive to civilized. differences emerge from different experiences |
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| Cultural traits originate in one area and spread to others |
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| All cultural traits originate from one single source |
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| cultural traits originated at multiple sources |
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| Geographic or climate changes pressure life forms to adapt |
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| Concept of natural selection. some variations more beneficial than others |
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| Human societies are like biological organisms. "the social organism". Social Darwinism |
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| Place all societies on a scale from primitive to civilized; analyze 'living fossils' as evidence of previous evolutionary stages; compare institutions to understand evolutionary trajectory from primitve to civilized. (contrasted by Cultural Relativism) |
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| Some societies are more fit than others. Justified colonialism and European domination over other societies. |
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| Social darwinism and racial theories |
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| Racial groups classified from primitive to civilized. some races deemed inferior to others. Justified social stratification and rationalized eugenics movement |
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| Your race determines your fate. Certain races are more primitive (inferior) |
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Physicist/geographer from Berlin. First American professor of Anthropology (was at Columbia Univ). Proponent of field work. Rejected arm-chair approaches and critiqued grand theories on race social evolution and cultural determinism.
Critiqued unilineal social evolution: (historical changes in cultural life follow definite laws to every society).
Critiqued diffusionism: (historical changes in cultural life are the result of contact between more and less civilized people). Must assume migration/contact over huge geographical areas. Egypt to Mexico for pyramids. Boas suggests possibility of INDEPENDENT INVENTION |
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| Boas' Historical PArticularism |
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Definition
Cultures can only be understood with reference to their particular historical developments. Each society has its own unique story.
No general theory can explain progress of cultural change. |
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| Boas' Rejection of Scientific Racism |
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Definition
| study in 1908 about cranial dimmensions of immigrants. found that crannial size is controlled by environmental factors more than genetic. debunked idea that different races had distinct cranial sizes/shapes |
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| Process by which humans cope with environmental stresses. can have biological or cultural dimensions |
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| Common misconceptions of anthro |
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1. anthropologists only work in remote areas
2. anthropologists are only interested in studying the primitive
3. anthropologists strive to unobtrusively observe. no participation in the society under study
4. It's an adventure
5. Only collect anecdotal data that is little use for social scientific purposes |
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| Polish. Exiled to Melanesia. Through participant observation, discovered the significance of the Kula Ring (seemingly irrational behavior in western pacific culture). |
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| ceremonial gift exchange network. items continually passed along which tie people into enduring trade relationships. possessing items enhances individual status. Malinowski demonstrated function of what appeared to outsiders as an IRRATIONAL EXCHANGE OF WORTHLESS ITEMS |
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| Derived theories by reading accounts of missionaries and not by conducting fieldwork. often biased, unreliable and ethnocentric. translation issues due to lack of participant obsv. led to bad data |
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Studied Nuer of Sudan. Nuer were antagonistic and difficult to study.
Participants hesitant to help with the study and to allow him into camps. lacked interpreter and had to learn their difficult language. was constantly treated with suspicion |
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| Ethnographer who studied Yanomamo: bullied and disrespected at first but then got respect by cutting their canoes. Culturally appropriate method. Used geneological method to construct family trees Obstacles in study: taboo against pronouncing name of deceased, fake-names that carried prestige, people lying |
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Used by Chagnon. Constructing family trees to understand complexity of social organization and political alliances.
helps understand social and political organization and dynamics of settlement fissions and terrotorial expansion |
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studied village in Bali. ran from police after balinese cock fight and demonstrated solidarity. went from being completely ignored to being at least teased-- recognition of his existence.
Proponent of symbolic and interpretive anthropology. demonstrate how seemingly irrational institutions and practices have cultural logic. they provide reader with an empathic understanding of another society. |
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| Action fo understanding, being aware of, and being sensitive to and vicariously experiencing the feelings thoughts and experiences of another. In anthro, gained by common experience through first-hand fieldwork |
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| Relation that is harmonious or sympathetic |
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| used self-reflexive style of ethnographic writing. Ethnographic Vignette. - became standard formula |
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Studied thai culture.
One cannot go fully native
learning culture uncritically as a child vs. critically as an adult
going native can lead to less detachment and objectivity |
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Living in comm under study
Learning local vernacular
learning how to behave appropriately
NOT used as sole method for gathering data
IS used for gaining basic understanding of society so that the researcher knows what kinds of questions to ask and how to askt hem |
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| Participant obsv., textual data, and economic data interrelate |
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participant observation. -> alaskan fish camp
establishing rapport. balance between participation and observation.
considered social movement, informant relations, information reliability, degree of power/autonomy, for a role to assume at the fish camp
Participant observation involves strategic choice to supply specific social roles. good choices facilitate rapport. bad choices can compromise validity of a study |
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Studied prostitution. accent made her a neutral figure who wasn't there to judge
EStablished rapport by establishing confidentiality. expressed genuine interest in the lives of the prostitutes and offered an empathic understanding
6 main themes: women's own explanations, cultural typology of prostitution, role of pimps, impact of the aids epidemic, violence and abuse, and getting out
Gave back to the prostitutes by offering childcare, car rides and grocieries. provided info and goods |
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Studied baseball. had to learn the vocabulary, speech patterns, and proper attire to establish rapport.
participant observation. had insider's perspective from previous experience as a baseball player and yet an analytical detachment |
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Essay on communication. Communication now so much easier and widely available, full cultural immersion is difficult.
May make us less-perceptive fieldworkers.
Is isolation the only way to do it? |
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| snapshot of present. reveals what is happening as opposed to why |
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| change over time. reveals what is happening as opposed to why |
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| list of questions to cover in interview. good for later comparison of answers |
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| Someone with especially good knowledge of a particular aspect of life. interviewed in-depth and repeatedly |
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| informs about generally held cultural beliefs and practices. an eye-witness |
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| interviewee as an object of study. conveys information of what THEY actually do in certain circumstances |
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| set of items that are generaly accepted of being of the same time. ex.) food that can be eaten |
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| Combination of survey and in-depth interviewing techniques. to determine what constitutes a cultural domain, how is it structured, and how are items positioned on it relative to eachother |
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| fact or fiction (benedict) |
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Definition
how do we move from data collection to ethnographic writing?
third person: objective
first person: subjective
how do we make it interesting to readers? sacrifice some truth to make it compelling?
benectict questioned whether its even fiction. was the information we got even accurate? |
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| Ethnography is not merely neutral |
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| it can be very subjective. |
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Criticized Diamond for lying about facts in his comparison of revenge in societies with state gov'ts and societies without.
Diamond said that those without state gov'ts led to revenge and those with states don't
Numerous inaccuracies, fabricated data, and published names of people involved in violent acts and could expose them to criminal charges
Also too generalized. we cant just take that comparison and generalize about underdeveloped societies |
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Personal: need to get along with people
Professional: need to get as much information out of people as possible
gotta be friendly and professional |
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| Outside interest groups (govts, development agencies) may want the anthropological information |
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| career is built on studying the poor and marginalized. ethical obligation to give back. |
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| Lack of permission to advocate. Who are you to come in here and "defend" us? |
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| people are different because they were brought up that way. |
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| Values Orientation Theory |
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Opposes Native realism.
To understand a society we must understand orientation of that society towards 5 main aspects: time, social relations, human nature, man and nature, and activity |
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| Group of people who interact with eachother more than others |
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| distinctive ways of life of a society |
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traditions/customs transmitted through learning that influence behaviors n beliefs
treated as an environment that influences and is influenced by human action
is constantly changing |
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Boys brought up a certain way; girls brought up a certain way.
Through play, observation, and direct transmission |
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| learned through observation and direct transmission |
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something that arbitrarily and by convention stands for something else with which it has no natural connection
learned through enculturation
same symbol can have different meanings across societies
provide order |
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| if one part of a cultural system changes, the other parts will be affected |
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Culture is an attribute of a group not of an individual.
culture unifies people by providing them with common experiences beliefs and values
in USA: individuality is a shared cultural value |
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Shakespeare in bush
Countered idea of Native Realism: we cannot generalize about different societies. Different socities will interpret certain things differently |
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Culture influences but DOES NOT DETERMINE behavior. people dont' blindly follow norms and rules
culture is actively created by individuals
constantly changing.
Agency is the actions people take to shape their realities and to transform cultural identities |
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| are subject to interpretation, manipulation and contestation |
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| Reciprocal relationship between culture and individual: culture shapes and constrains an individual's actions/thoughts but the agency allows individuals to transform culture in subtle and yet CUMULATIVE ways |
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| Mechanisms of culture change |
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Definition
1. Agency and Practice: incremental change over time due to the cumulative actions of individuals
2. Independent invention: humans innovate and find creative solutions to problems. same solution can occur in different places at diff times (Agriculture)
3. Diffusion: borrowing between cultures
4. Acculturation: exchange of cultural features between groups in first hand contact. original cultural patterns of either group or both groups may be altered but both groups remain distinct |
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1. provides people with orientations towards deeper problems
2. perpetuates group solidarity
3. Regulates our lives: constant pressure to follow certain norms |
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| subculture -> national culture -> international culture |
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Reject naive realism: diff cultures perceive diff things differently
To understand a culture we have to understand:
1. what people do
2. what people know
3. things people make and use
Cultural Knowledge: acquired knowledge through enculturation people use to interpret experience and generate behavior |
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| Explicit vs tacit culture |
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| clearly expressed vs implied or understood culture |
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| tendency to view one's own culture as superior. tendency to apply one's own cultural values in judging other cultures |
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Behavior in one culture should not be judged by standards of another
important concept as an analytical tool but problematic in practice
cultural relativism is not MORAL relativism |
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| When does life begin (morgan)? |
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Definition
presonhood is dependent on social recognition. personhood is a cultural reconstruction
Social birth gives moral status
in US: personhood is conferred at birth
varies cross-culturally |
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| Legal Personhood (viability) |
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Definition
Legal dividing line between fetuses that can be legally aborted and those which merited the protection of the state
Fetus is defined as being viable if it has the chance to survive at all even with some artificial help
viable fetus is considered a person for legal purposes |
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Cultural traditions convert natural acts into cultural customs: eating, moving, death
Cultural influences how we perceive and interact with surroundings and how we perceive our bodies and natural abilities |
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Studied "american society" as obsessed with body. see body as ugly and debilitating and decaying
shrine rooms to prevent decay |
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| eating can say a lot about culture. studied chinese eating stuff |
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tried to offer them ox, offbalance to their normal egalitarian society
had to cool his heart to make him gentle and not let him get arrogant
wanted to humble lee |
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Study of human movement/gestures/postures
Nonverbal gestures can vary cross culturally
Facial expressions are universal. even to primates
hand gestures vary cross culturally |
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| Language to shape our view of world |
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| language can shape the way we see things. political arena, war, congressional acts, advertizing products |
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| specialized vocabulary for a certain area of stuff. knives for chefs |
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relationships between social variations and linguistic variations
language is full of information aout culture |
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change in choice of words/intonation/speech pattern to fit a specific situation
important social skill
can be conscious or unconscious and can be beneficial and bad |
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| Symbolic Capital (Bourdieu) |
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Definition
SKillful use of linguistic practices can yield symbolic capital
certain dialects are stigmatized, others reflect status |
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| Sociolinguistic Discrimination |
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| using linguistic features as evaluator of competence |
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Women rapport, men report
leads to men talking more in public, women more at home |
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Studied how people use technology for breakups
Media is Mutually Constitutive: Old media shapes how we use and think about new media
Face to face is best option for breakups. more impersonal options make phone calls more desirable alternative
Determining intentions is the most important for which face to face is the best option followed by phone |
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| Transformative Speech act |
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Direct and immediate relationship between utterance of certain thing and a change in social status
senator to president by spoken oath |
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Studied mock spanish: racial discourse
using spanish is a marker of race when you're brown but when you're white you look worldly
Mock spanish is racial discource by directly indexing congeniality of speaker while indirectly indexing negative stereotypes |
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| Indexes that are understood: using mock spanish to come off as congenial |
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| reliance on pre-existing stereotypes for mock spanish to be understood |
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Hunter-gatherer. oldest adaptive strategy. used throughout most of human history
band organized society; mobility; egalitarian; men hunt, women gather; social distinctions based on age |
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Proved that foragers were not subsistent. They were actually quite comfortable with minimal work.
less desires -> less production necessary for fulfillment of needs
did not have material impulses because materials were just burdens to this population that was constantly on the move |
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Requires a lot of labor
more working hours and decreased marginal returns creates need for social hierarchy |
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| Food Production and Population |
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Higher population density -> higher labor requirement for food production
forest fallow -> bush fallow -> short fallow -> annual cropping -> multi-cropping |
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| Reliance on herds of domesticated animals and reliance on animal products. diets supp. by hunting foraging and trading |
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| part of group moves with herd; other part stays in village |
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French sociologist. student of emile durkheim
wrote THE GIFT. important theoretical exploration of reciprocity and exchange |
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entails social and political obligations
gift is inescapably tied to the giver |
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| creating social relationship |
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| acknowledging social relationship |
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| maintaining social relationship |
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| exchange between people of similar social standing who have close personal ties. |
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| gift giving without expectation of immediate pay-back. assumption that it'll all even itself out in the end. diane-jo and chinese food YUMYUM |
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| Intent to impress others by accumulating money and material goods |
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| Collection of goods to one center followed by redistribution throughout community |
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Studied potlatch events of Kwakiutl
showed that potlatch is not simply a competition of conspicuous consumption but a means of redistribution.
Redistribution impossible/impractical in egalitarian societies--balanced reciprocity as the norm in egalitarian
Correlation between complexity of society and mode of production.
from balanced reciprocity to redistribution to accumulation |
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capitalist: large gap between bosses and laborers
nonindustrial society: small gap between leader and workers |
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| Economically irrational drive for prestige. some people value prestige over well-being |
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| Potlatch displayed megalomania |
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| cultural adaptation to alternating periods of local abundance and shortage |
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Working conditions in el barrio
substance abuse/unhealthy environment/anxieties related to violence and legal risks |
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| Cultural Reproduction Theory |
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| Schools socialize minorities to fit into a dominant white majority ideology. resistence of this assimilation leads to economic failure |
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| inner-city street culture |
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| rebellious practices opposed to mainstream society. rejection of racism and marginalization by pursuing underground economy |
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| Violence as a means to maintain credibility, upward mobility and security |
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| person-centered interviewing |
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| interviews person as informant and respondent |
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| Language produces different ways of thinking |
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