calorie dense

nutrient dense

phytochemicals

single sugar

only sugar in starch

most abundant sugar in diet

body's source of energy

Incomplete breakdown products from fat

small water soluble molecules

*products will build up in blood

can be used by areas of the body that cannot use fat as enegy (brain)

alter brain function to

1. decrease appetite

2. get through famine

Brain is not functioning optimally

Alters mood

1. headaches

2. tired

Can taste fruity ketones on breath

Body shifts metabolism so that the body is producing CHO for the brain

Transforms amino acids (fats) into CHO

*happens at same time as ketosis

pathogenically dangerous levels of ketones

-enough ketones that weak acids start to change the pH of the blood

-most likely to happen with Diabetes Type I patients

One sugar molecule

long chains of sugar molecules

-almost exclusively glucose

Once in the muscle, CHO never leaves

-either used or stored

Regulates blood glucose levels

-as blood glucose levels go down, liver breaks down glycogen into glucose to send out

How many kcal per gram of fiber?

25-30g per day

-more kcal you eat, the more fiber you should eat

All plant foods

Many fruits and vegetables

Oat bran

Oatmeal

Most legumes

Peanuts

Psyllium seeds (commerical laxatives)

Gums

Pectin

Softens stool

Reduce blood cholesterol

1. Traps water and bile

-bile is made of cholesterol so the body will have to replace the bile if it is trapped

2. Increases excretion of blood cholesterol used to make bile

Created from partially digested water soluble fiber

-decreases cholesterol synthesis in liver

Whole, unrefined grains

Wheat bran

Many vegetables

Fruits and legumes

Lowers risk of CVD

-Lowers blood cholesterol

Lowers risk of obesity

-water + fiber =less hungry and feel fuller longer

Lowers risk of diabetees

-controls blood glucose levels

Increases GI tract health

-less constipation, diverticulitus, colon cancer

How is glycemic index found?

Rate of gastric emptying

Digestibility of food

-starch must be broken down into CHO before being absorbed

Ability to digest CHO

-some foods inhibit absoprtion of CHO

Refinment of starch

-genereally, the more processed the food, the higher the GI

Naturally occuring fiber

Size of CHO molecule

-simple (sugar) vs. complex (starch)

Protein

Fat

Yes: Type II Diabetes and Obesity

-doesn't mean caused but ASSOCIATED with

excessive calories

large amounts of rapidly absorbable sugars

-effect blood glucose levels

People consume more of high GI foods

Hunger related to glucose caused by fluctuations in glucose levels

-not shown to be true

Fat storage

-just because glucose is stored does not mean it will not be used

Hormone that regulates CHO metabolism

Pancrase produces insulin when the body's blood glucose levels rise

As the blood glucose levels rise the insulin tells skeletal muscle and adapose (fat) to take up glucose

no initial sypmtoms

after damage has been done:

-blindness

-damaged nerves

people who are over weight and the elderly

-typically more inactive

healthy eating and regular physical activity

Has almost nothing to do with genetic make-up

medications- $$

-have many uncomfortable side effects

Life style changes

DAILY physical activity

-insulin sensitizing effects only last about 24 hours

diet

Diet

-reduce weight gain, lose weight

-reduce CVD risk

damage BIG blood vessels in vascular system (Aorta)

atherosclerosis

blindness

kidney failure

amputations

-damage of nerve endings/loss of feeling

-compromised blood supply

elderly as they stop producing lactase

NOT northern europeans/americans

prodiminately asians, africans, and mediterraneans

avoid large helpings of dairy products

eat small amounts of diary with multiple meals

low lactose dair

-fermented

-lactase-treated products

FORTIFIED dairy-substitutes

protein

-2 amino acids

contains phenylalanine

contains methanol

artificial sweetener

equal

genetic condition

prevents proper digestion of phenylalanine

No

-not a high enough dosage of methanol

made from sucrose

-retains sweetness but prevents digestion

Hundreds of time sweeter than sugar, so very little is added to food

-aspertame= almost no calories

-sucralose= no calories at all

Usually found in highly processed foods

-not real foods

Misleading amount of calories

-the foods that they are found in have other ingredients with higher calories

comensatory eating

-C-N

Aromatic Ring

Arene

C-C=N

l

C

C-C=O

l

H

C-C=O

l

N

C-C=O

l

OH

       -CH-CH₃

l

CH₃

C-C=O

l

Cl

C-C=O

l

C

C-X

(X= F, Br, Cl, I)

Can have positive charge

Want to gain electrons

Can have negative charge

Want to lose electron

Positively charged C

3 bonds

1 empty p-orbital

+

H-C-H

l

H

Methyl carbocation

least stable

+

H-C-H

l

CH₃

Primary (1°) Carbocation

+

   H-C-CH₃
l

CH₃

+

CH₃-C-CH₃

l

CH₃

Tertiary (3°) Carbocation

Most stable

Amount of Energy needed for reaction to occur

-determines how quickly rxn will occur

-lower E_A=faster

Make E_A smaller

make a more stable intermediate (E_A smaller)

Addition of X-X to alkene

(X= Cl, Br, etc..)

+

-C-

l

.

-C-

l

..

-C-

l

overlapping orbitals, not just double bonds

more resonance= more stable

Br₂ + FeBr₃ --> [Br⁺] + Fe^-Br₄

Cl₂ + FeCl₃ --> [Cl⁺] + Fe^-Cl₄

              +             

HNO₃ + SO₄ --> [O≡N≡O] + H₂O + HSO₄^-

 Nitronium

   +

C-C-C --> [C-C-C] + Al^-Cl₄

l                         

Cl(Br)                    

C-C=O + AlCl₃ --> [C≡O⁺] + Al^-Cl₄

l                                      

Cl                                      

Next to each other

1,2

2 carbons away

1,3

3 carbons away

1,4

[image]

[image]

[image]

P-bromoaniline

Make ring more reactive

Ortho-Para directors

Make ring less reactive

Meta-directors

C-C-OH

*  

Primary (1°) alcohol

C bonded with OH only has 1 other bond

*

C-C-C

l

OH

Secondary (2°) alcohol

C

l

C-C-C

l

OH

Occurs when H attached to an electroneg element (O,N) is attracted to the long pair of another molecule

-2nd strongest intermolecular force

quanifies how acidic an acid is

-lower= more acidic

stability of conjugate base

-more stable conjugate base=more acidic acid

Adding e^-

Making less positive

Taking away e^-

Making more positive

# of bonds to more electroneg. element

- #of bonds to less electroneg element

= Oxidation state if C

+4

O=C=O

-4

H

l

H-C-H

l

H

Cellulosic Ethanol

won't combat food source and increase food prices

-happens with higher demand

Sodium Borohydrate

-Reduces aldehydes to 1° alcohols

-Reduces ketons to 2° alcohols

-Will NOT reduce carboxylic acids or esters

Lithium Aluminumhydrate

-Reduces aldehydes to 1° alcohols

-Reduces ketones to 2° alcohols

-Reduces carboxylic acids and esters to 1° alcohols

Pyridium Chlorochroate

-Oxidizes 1° alcohols to aldehydes

-Oxidizes 2° alcohols ketones

Chromic Acid

-oxidizes 1° alcohols to carboxylic acids

-oxidizes 2° alcohols to ketones