-"doing what is beautiful"

-attitude behind outward activity that is demanded islam

-being aware of God-Hadith of Gabriel

worship

comes from the same word as "to serve"

1.) recite the Koran-arts of speech

2.) copy the koran-art of the pen

3.)embody the Koran through salat and other rituals-art of ritual environment

ali's son husayn, the 3rd imam, was pressured to go to Iraq (Kufa) to overthrow Yazid. promised followers at Kufa.  Went with followers.  Parol sent by Iraqi gov to overthrow Husayn.  None of the Kufa supporters came to his aid.  Husayn camped in karbala, where the kufa troops laid siege to him, he and all his supporters died.

obscured by legend in the 13th century; sensationalized/embellished--really only gained significance as a result of the penitents' guilt 

what elements of the tragedy at karbala became defining features of Shiism?

martyrdom

guilt

self-flagellation

ashura

imam jafar was father of shii law, not as concerned with politics

some believed he had not died--hidden and would return

11th imam left no successors-splintering, period of confusion

some claimed he was just hiding from caliph, who would kill him--will reappear one day--became widespread shii belief

four generations believed he communicated through letters (lesser occultation) before he broke off all contact (greater occultation)

muhammad, daughter fatima, and 12 imams

immune to error and sin

no others can claim their level of aurthority

all martyrs

sunnis only honor the word of the prophet, shiites honor all 14

tragedy at karbala-honor husayn and atone/rid oneself of guilt

collective lamentation at gravesite in karbala

has origin in pre-nonIslamic societies (ritual is the essence of shiism)

in middle ages, wwere two forms of penitence and lamentation

1. elegy-singer who sings with audience participation

2. procession-staged scenes

both contributed to passion play, ta'ziyeh, of ashura

ulama-religious scholars, experts in law

they existed before but took on greater role after imam disappeared

after the 12th imam disappeared, way to keep from falling apart

the buyids ascent to power in the 10th century

shiite government who made no secret of their beliefs, and allowed shiites to flourish.  but the very fact that they did not challenge the sunni caliphate was seemingly blasphemous--these were the people who killed husayn!

previously, would not work at all with sunnis, now, revised position where as long as they maintain shii belief and promote cause, it's ok, and even viewed as martyrdom

1. kafi (foundation of twelver shi'ism)

2. if one has no expert at hand

3. consideration of the disputed traditions

4. appeal of decisions

usulis-school of shii rationalists-human reason-believe in itjihad-most live in iraq

akhbaris-fundamentalists, leave out human reason-don't trust ulama using itjihad--truth is found only in revelation-marginal group in Iranian monarchy

-resistance to foreign influences

-religion is still untouched by western influences--we will cling to this

-deritualization of ashura-instead, live it every day

-eliminating eschatological expectation of the mahdi-make justice now, don't wait for it in the future-money should go to cause, not clergy

wanted religion without clerics

despised passivity, waiting for mahdi

separation of islam and politics is bad

government of the jurist-consist of qualified scholar who knows divine revelation and God's will

best known of the 18th century revival movement

seen in ideological worldviews of many contemporary muslims

example for modern revivalism

characterized by religious zeal and military power--religiopolitical movement that waged a holy war--very black and white, those who didn't believe were fought and killed, even went so far as to destroy tomb of husayan at karbala

wanted to return to purity of the time of muhammad

leader equated arab with islam

called for internal reform to strengthen muslim community and drive out west--if we reinterpret islam, make it relevant to intellectual and political life, we can restore it to political independence and past glory

attempted to bridge gap between secular modernists and religious traditionalists

there should be no separation of public life and religion

father of muslim nationalism

salafiyya movement

disciple of al-afghani

father of islamic modernism in arab world

no contradiction between religion and science

certain inner unchanging layers of islam, but outer layers can be changed

used public interest as justification for Islamic legal reform

disciple of al-afghani

mouthpiece of abduh

very similar to abduh in beliefs-islam subject to change in social sphere, based on public interest

distrusted ulama

in later years, became more conservative and distrusting of west--attracted to wahhabi movement, wanted to protect against damaging effects of west

pride in islamic heritage-renewed sense of identity

islam possesses a means for assimilation of modern science and technology, modernity in general

assembled community of like minded modernists

holistic view of islam-private and public life

able to prescribe but not so much implement

what is the ideological worldview of islamic revivalism?

westernization, not modernity is condemned

jihad against corruption and social injustice

minority-radical activists believe theological doctrine and political reality necessitate violent revolution

moderate majority seek reform through gradual transformation of muslim society

shah of iran welcomed large scale westernization, which encouraged internal opposition

opposition gained meaning and legitimacy from shii islam, but in reality was fragmented with different goals and visions of Islam and Iran

1979-revolution and return to Islamic Republic of Iran

Khomeini took over with very conservative religious outlook which influenced every facet of public life and gov

supported a sociopolitical reform

waiting for next imam should be a period of active striving to usher in age of social justice and equality

both Western imperialism and retrogressive religious leadership responsible for decline of Muslim society in his mind

didn't trust traditional religious leaders

islam/muslim nationalism gained popular support from otherwise diverse population on indian subcontinent

pakistan's first constitution was compromise between modernists and religious conservatives

fundamentalist orientation/gov implemented by martial law

islam became source of national identity, legitimacy, public morality, as well as continued excuse for military rule

engendered opposition and exacerbated religious and ethnic tensions

in west overall, political threat of fundamentalism has distorted western perceptions of islam, as well as dealing with issues of assimilation

europe-less economically advantaged, more ghettoized than america

follower of wallace fard muhammad--claimed he was allah, and he himself muhammad

when wallace died, he became head of nation of islam and made it into effective political movement which differed from mainstream islam in that it did not practice five pillars, and preached black separatism

life is a war between good (blacks) and evil (whites)-in end, white oppressor will fall to chosen people

who wll do the interpreting?

sunni-uluma will interpret, caliph will implement

shii-ulama will interpret and implement in absence of imam

since islam lacks a centralized teaching authority or organized hierarchy, no obvious answer to this question

what is islam?

central issue is relationship of tradition to modernization

imitation (taqlid) of past or reinterpretation (itjihad) and reform of tradition?

one classic Islamic model, or many?

the modern period has brought about a serious erosion in the ulama's power

abolition of religious endowments and their administration by government agencies has further reduced the economic independence and social role of the ulama

greater value of modern education tends to hold ulama responsible for greater problems in Muslim society

ulama still claim that they alone have necessary religious learnings and should be the ultimate authority in determining the law

women's roles have been altered and broadened by the West and rationales of Islamic modernism--more prominent role in public life, formed their own, women-led prayer groups

the veiling and seclusion of women is not based on a clear text of the Quran, but rather patriarchy which became tradition

varying degrees of violence and killing in the name of religion

minorities fear a return to "protected" status by gov.

will non-Muslims be able to hold gov. positions?