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| The process of reasoning by which new information is interpreted according to a memory structure, a schema, which contains a network of generic scripts, metaphors, and simplified characterizations of observed objects and phenomena. |
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| The general psychological tendency to deny discrepancies between one's preexisting beliefs (cognitions) and new information. |
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| The tendency of states and people in competitive interaction to perceive each other similarly - to see others the same hostile way others see them. |
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| Prolonged competition fueled by deep-seated mutual hatred that leads opposed actors to feud and fight over a long period of time without resolution of their conflict. |
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| An individual, group, state, or organization that plays a major role in world politics. |
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| A state's supreme authority to manage internal affairs and foreign relations. |
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| An independent legal entity with a government exercising exclusive control over the territory and population it governs |
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| A collectivity whose people see themselves as members of the same group because they share the same ethnicity, culture, or language. |
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| The decisions governing authorities make to realize international goals. |
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| A conception of foreign policy that the political actor's foreign policy is undifferentiated to the target, and that it acts under presupposed generalized characteristic. |
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| A perception of foreign policy in which the actor's foreign policy refers to specific goals with respect to another actor or target in particular. |
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| The dyadic relationships between various actors that is based upon their foreign policies and toward each other and the acts that are a result of those relationships. |
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| The predominant patterns of behaviors and beliefs that prevail internationally to define the major worldwide conditions that heavily influence human and national activities. |
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| A paradigm based on the premise that world politics is essentially and unchangeably a struggle among self-interested states for power and position under anarchy, with each competing state pursuing its own national interests. |
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| A theoretical account of states' behavior that explains it as determined by differences in their relative power within the global hierarchy, defined primarily by the distribution of military power, instead of by other factors such as their values, types of government, or domestic circumstances. |
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| The neorealist theory postulating that the structure of the global system determines the behavior of transnational actors within it. |
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| A paradigm predicated on the hope that the application of reason and universal ethics to international relations can lead to a more orderly, just, and cooperative world; liberalism assumes that anarchy and war can be policed by institutional reforms that empower international organization and law. |
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| A model of world politics based on the assumptions that states are not the only important actors, security is not the dominant national goal, and military force is not the only significant instrument of foreign policy; this theory stresses cross-cutting ways in which the growing ties among transnational actors make them vulnerable to each other's actions and sensitive to each other's needs. |
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| The "new" liberal theoretial perspective that accounts for the way international institutions promote global change, cooperation, peace, and prosperity through collective programs for reforms. |
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| An approach to evaluating moral choices on the basis of the results of the actions taken. |
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| A theoretical approach that sees self-interested states as the key actors in world politics; their actions are determined not by anarchy but by the ways that states socially construct and then accept images of reality and later respond to the meanings given to power politics; as consensual definitions change, it is possible for either conflictual or cooperative practices to evolve. |
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| A body of theory that treats the capitalistic world economy as an interconnected unit of analysis encompassing the entire globe, with an international division of labor and multiple political centers and cultures whose rules constrain and share the behavior of all transnational actors. |
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| The postmodern theory that the complexity of the world system renders precise description impossible and that the purpose of scholarship is to understand actors' hidden motives by deconstructing their textual statements. |
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| The methodological research movement to incorporate rigorous scientific analysis into the study of world politics so that conclusions about patterns are based on measurement, data, and evidence rather than on speculation and subjective belief. |
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| Speculations about historical events and developments that ask how the world might have changed had certain momentous foreign policy choices not been taken or had other conditions prevailed by inquiring, "what would have happened if..." |
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| The concept that decision maker's capacity to choose the best option is often constrained by many human and organizational obstacles. |
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| The negative side effects that result from choices, such as inflation resulting from runaway government spending. |
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| The tendency for decision makers to chose the first satisfactory option rather than searching further for a better alternative. |
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| The social psychological theory that international decision making is constrained by formed opinions and tendencies to overreact in crises, that decisions tend to be made based on the perceived prospects of choices to fulfill objectives, and that for policy makers, a crucial consideration in taking risks is the perceived prospects for avoiding losses and realizing big gains. |
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| Bureaucratic Politics Model |
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Definition
| A description of decision making that sees foreign policy choices as based on bargaining and compromises among competing government agencies. |
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| Leaders and organized interests (such as lobbies) that form temporary alliances to influence a particular foreign policy decision. |
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| The propensity for members of a group to accept and agree with the group's prevailing attitudes, rather than speaking out for what they believe. |
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| A conceptualization of rationality that emphasizes the tendency of decision makers to compare options with those previously considered and then select the one that has the best chance of success. |
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| The extent to which policy makers' self-confidence instills in them the belief that they can effectively make rational choices. |
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| The Diversionary Theory of War |
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| The hypothesis that leaders sometimes initiate conflict abroad as a way of increasing national cohesion at home by diverting national public opinion away from controversial domestic issues and internal problems. |
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| The neorealist proposition that states' behavior is shaped primarily by changes in the properties of the global system, such as shifts in the balance of power, instead of by individual heads of states or by changes in states' internal characteristics. |
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| A movement by an ethnic national group to recover control of lost territory by force so that the new state boundaries will no longer divide the group. |
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| The German realist philosophy in statecraft that sees the expansion of state power and territory by use of armed force as a legitimate. |
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| President Carter's declaration of U.S. willingness to use military force to protect its interests in the Persian Gulf. |
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| A U.S. promise to support anticommunist insurgents attempting to overthrow governments backed by the Soviet Union. |
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| The capacity to co-opt through such intangible factors as the popularity of a state's values and institutions, as opposed to the "hard power" to coerce through military might. |
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| An agreement between states to consult one another and take a common course of action if one is attacked by another state. |
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| A theory claiming that the perpetual and widening inequality among states i explained by capitalism's international division of labor and production, which over time allows the wealthy core countries to become richer while the peripheral states that supply raw materials and cheap labor become poorer. |
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| The theoretical outlook prescribing that countries should increase their power and wealth in order to compete with and dominate other countries. |
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| A theory that less-developed countries are exploited because global capitalism makes them dependent on the rich countries that create exploitative rules for trade production. |
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| The separation of a country into two sectors, the first modern and prosperous centered in major cities, and the second at the margin, neglected and poor. |
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| The industrialization of peripheral areas within the confines of the dominance-dependence relationship between the Global North and the Global South, which enables the poor to become wealthier without ever catching up to the core Global North countries. |
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| Nonaligned Movement (NAM) |
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Definition
| A group of more than one hundred newly independent, mostly less-developed, states that joined together as a group of neutrals to avoid entanglement with the superpowers' competing alliances in the Cold War and to advance the Global South's primary interests in economic cooperation and growth. |
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| Official Development Assistance (ODA) |
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Definition
| Grants or loans to countries from donor countries, now usually channeled through multilateral aid institutions such as the World Bank for the primary purpose of promoting economic development and welfare. |
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| Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) |
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Definition
| A cross-border investment through which a person or corporation based in one country purchases or constructs an asset such as a factory or bank in another country so that a long-term relationship and control of an enterprise by nonresidents results. |
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| The view that Global South countries can best achieve sustained economic growth through democratic governance, fiscal discipline, free markets, a reliance on private enterprise, and trade liberalization. |
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| Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) |
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Definition
| Institutions created and joined by states' governments, which give them authority to make collective decisions to manage particular problems on the global agenda. |
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| Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) |
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Definition
| Transnational organizations of private citizens maintaining consultative status with the UN; they include professional associations, foundations, multinational corporations, or simply internationally active groups in different states joined together to work toward common interests. |
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| An approach to governance advocated primarily by many European leaders who, while recognizing few alternatives to liberal capitalism, seek to soften the cruel social impact of free-market individualism by progressively allowing government intervention to preserve social justice and the rights of individuals to freedom from fear of the deprivations caused by disruptions in the global economy. |
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| The revised functional theory explaining that the IGOs created by states to manage common problems provide benefits that exert new pressure by political means for further political integration, the creation of additional IGOs, and the globalization of international relations in an expanding network of independence that reduces states' incentives to wage war. |
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| The propensity for successful integration across one area of collaboration between states to propel further integration in other areas. |
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| The reversal of previous steps toward integration, reducing the number of sectors in which integrating states are engaged in cooperative exchanges. |
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| The stagnation or encapsulation of regional integration as the costs of integration in one cooperative venture reduce efforts to try integration other spheres of transaction. |
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| Strategic Corporate Alliances |
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| Cooperation between multinational corporations and foreign companies in the same industry, driven by the movement of MNC manufacturing overseas. |
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| The integration of states, through increasing contact, communication, and trade, to create a common global culture for all humanity. |
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| Power Purchasing Parity (PPP) |
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| An index that calculates the true rate of exchange among currencies when parity is achieved; the index determines what can be bought with a unit of each currency. |
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| The selling of one currency (or product) and purchase of another to make a profit on changing exchange rates; traders help to keep states' currencies in balance through their speculative efforts to buy large quantities of devalued currencies and sell them in countries where they are more highly valued. |
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| A system under which states establish the parity of their currencies and commit to keeping fluctuations in their exchange rates within narrow limits. |
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| International Monetary Fund (IMF) |
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| A financial agency now affiliated with the UN, established in 1944 to promote international monetary cooperation, free trade, exchange rate stability, and demcoratic rule by providing finanfical assistance and loans to countries facing financial crises. |
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| The globe's major IGO for financing economic growth and reducing poverty through long-term loans. |
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| The proposition that under conditions of globalization the depletion of one country's currency reserves panics investors worldwide and spread like a contagious disease to other countries, which witness the decline of their own currency reserves as the flight of capital also reduces the value of their currency. |
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| Reserve assets used to settle international accounts in the form of dollars. |
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| A multilateral agency that monitors the implementation of trade agreements and settles disputes among trade partners. |
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| Agreements between otherwise competitive MNCs, often temporary, to join forces and skills to coproduce and export particular products in the borderless global marketplace. |
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| A contemporary version of classical mercantilism that advocates promoting domestic production and a balance-of-payment surplus by subsidizing exports and using tariffs and nontariff barriers to reduce imports. |
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| Most-Favored-Nation Principle (MFN) |
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Definition
| The principle of unconditional nondiscriminatory treatment in trade between contracting parties underscoring the WTO's rule requiring any advantage given by one WTO member to also extend it to all other WTO members. |
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| Beggar-Thy-Neighbor Policies |
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Definition
| A state's attempt to promote trade surpluses by trade policies that cause its trade partners to suffer trade deficits. |
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| Orderly Market Arrangements |
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Definition
| Voluntary export restrictions through government-to-government agreements to follow specific trading rules. |
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| Higher-than-normal financial returns on investments that are realized from governmental restrictive interference of monopolistic markets. |
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| A rapid reduction of population that reverses a previous trend toward progressively larger populations; a severe reduction in the world's population. |
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| A future phenomenon that will occur when machine intelligence surpasses human intelligence. |
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| The view that the unavailability of resources require to sustain life can undermine security in degrees similar to military aggression. |
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| The error of assuming that the attributes of an entire population are the same attributes and attitudes of each person within it. |
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| The logical error of assuming that an individual leader represents the people and opinions of the population governed. |
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| An intepretation of war's onset as a choice by the initiator to bargain through aggression with an enemy in order to win on an issue or to obtain things of value. |
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| The theory that war is likely when a dominant great power is threatened by the rapid growth of a rival's capabilities, which reduces the difference in their relative power. |
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| The use of threats or limited armed force to persuade an adversary to alter its foreign and/or domestic policies. |
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| The propensity for actions undertaken for national security to have the unintended consequence of provoking retaliatory attacks by the target when relations later sour. |
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| The expansion of additional new nuclear weapon states. |
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| The psychological barrier between conventional wars and wars fought with nuclear weapons as well as weapons of mass destruction. |
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| The next generation of "near nuclear" military capabilities produced by the revolution in military technology that would put strategic nuclear weapons of mass destruction at the margins of national security strategies by removing dependence on them for deterrence. |
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| A method of coercive diplomacy usually involving an act of war or threat to force an adversary to make concessions against its will. |
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| Nuclear Utilization Theory (NUTs) |
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Definition
| A body of strategic thought that claimed deterrent threats would be more credibly if nuclear weapons were made more usable. |
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| A metaphor used to describe the tendency of efforts to enhance defense to result in escalating arms races. |
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| Under a balance-of-power system, an influential global or regional great power that throws its support in decisive fashion to a defensive coalition. |
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| Provision by a third party to offer a place for negotiation among disputants but does not serve as a mediator in the actual negotiations. |
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| A conflict-resolution procedure in which a third party assists both parties to a dispute but does not propose a solution. |
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| A conflict-resolution procedure in which a third party makes a binding decision between disputants through a temporary ruling board created for that ruling. |
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| A conflict-resolution procedure in which a third party makes a binding decisions about a dispute in an institutional tribunal. |
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| The harm and injury caused by the global system's unregulated structure, which gives strong states great opportunities to victimize weak states that cannot protect themselves. |
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| A theory that stresses states' customs and habitual ways of behaving as the most important source of law. |
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| A government's acknowledgment of the factual existence of another state or government short of full recognition. |
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| A government's formal, legal recognition of another sovereign government or state. |
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| Strictly outlawed by international law, a war undertaken by choice against an enemy to prevent it from suspected intentions to attack sometime in the distant future - if and when the enemy might acquire the necessary military capabilities. |
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| Retaliatory acts (e.g. economic sanctions)against a target's behavior that is regarded as objectionable but legal (e.g. trade restrictions) to punish the target with measures that are legal under international law. |
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