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| The rational investigation of the truths and principles of being, knowledge, or conduct. |
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- Was taught to ask questions
- Was committed to truth
- Condemned death in a town and stayed there to die for what he believed in |
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| Goal was to create a universal method of reasoning |
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| the actual state of matter |
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ideas are the only true reality
Plato wrote about it in his book "The Republic" around 400BC |
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ultimate reality is the world of physical objects
truth is objective and can be observed
Reality exists independent of the human mind.
Aristotle supported this. |
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| Pragmatism/Experientialism |
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Only things observed or experienced are real.
Reality is constantly changing.
The best way to live is to apply our experiences and thoughts to problems as they arrive. |
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Reality is subjective to the individual.
Individual defines reality, often within a hostile and indifferent world.
The individual rather than external standards. |
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Descartes.
Everything can be explained rationally.
We discover ideas through the mind. |
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Believed we must doubt everything.
Wrote 13 Meditations
"I think, therefore I am." |
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| Monistic vs. Dualistic view |
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Mind and body as one or separate, and everything consisting of one, vs. more substances.
Dualist can also refer to the balance of realism and idealism. |
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| The study of existence and what is real |
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| The essential reality of something independent, unchanging, and able to exist by itself. |
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| Distinct independent singular entities. |
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| Separate proprieties of an individual. |
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Knowledge comes only from the sense of experience.
Different from experientialism because they believe that you can't "know" that the world exists beyond where you can see, where experientialists believe that you can know because you experienced it in the past. |
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Said Descartes theories relied on God existing, and that therefore they are fallacious.
An empiricist. |
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| Universe is made of physical substances only. |
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| Buddhism/Hinduism/Taoism/Confucianism |
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Confucianism: Revitalization of forgotten tradition and virtue.
Other three, alphabetical: reach Nirvana without desire, realize truth within your soul, know yourself. |
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Cause and effect
Plato and Aristotle |
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God exists because you imagine he does. Realists like this.
Descartes and St. Anselm |
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Watchmaker analogy
Aquinas |
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Leibniza- God is the only way mind and body can interact.
Spinoza - Everything is God. |
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| Priori arguments exist without evidence |
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| combination of determinism and free will |
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| Media has its own Weltanschauung |
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Metaethics: Big questions
Normative: Within our lives
Applied: Specific issues |
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Differentiations of intentions, decisions, and actions between those that are good, (right), or bad (wrong).
Social customs of a people |
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"We've killed God"
Existentialist; Nihilist |
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what you should do;
based on normative ethics |
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In accordance with societal norms.
Describes people or actions.
Amoral - not covered by general society. |
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| Acting to benefit yourself |
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| Moral Realists/Ethical Objectivists |
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| Ethical Subjectivists/Anti-realists |
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| There are moral values but no moral facts |
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| Universal Declaration of Human Rights |
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48 countries in 1948.
30 articles, 30 rights.
Western ideals. |
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Self interest
self harm
slippery slope
legal situations |
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| Based on the life of a whole person. The Golden Mean. Everything has a purpose and eudaemonia comes from that purpose. No afterlife, eudaemonia is the full reward. Act with moral reflex and reason. |
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| It's the thought that counts. |
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| the consequences are what matter |
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| "do what is good for you" |
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| we use pleasure as our standard, so made the Hedonic Calculus |
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| Kantian/Categorical Imperative |
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| Humanity must be your ends, not means. Make set of universal rules by reason. |
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| Pluralistic Theory of Duty/W.D. Ross |
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| There are higher duties, the Prima Facie are the most important |
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| "We're responsible for our actions, to avoid that is bad faith. Be true to yourself." |
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| "Ask yourself if you are happy and you will cease to be so." |
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| There are specific ends or goals that humans aim for to shape their ideas of ethics. They are general values like freedom and justice. |
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| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |
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| Necessary, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization. |
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Want love vs. need love.
Getting and having things
Herbert Marcuse: Said society creates false needs which restrict us. |
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| Pleasure = good. Immediate pleasure is best. |
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| Mental and long-term pleasures are the ultimate good. |
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| Like Buddhism, happiness is from eliminating desire, just more reason based. Live wisely. |
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| RASS - religion, abuse, sanctity of life, slippery slope |
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| QGMR - quality, good life, medical resources, right to die |
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The Right to Die with Dignity Bill
Defeated in 2010 |
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| War is inevitable, a tool of government, so fight fair |
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| Just cause, intention, authority, resort, reasonable success, proportionality |
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| Set of individuals and/or institutions in relations governed by interdependence and law. |
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| The political organization of a body of people for maintenance of order. |
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| King/Queen can do anything since they're chosen by God |
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| Oligarchy consisting of the best people ruling and others following. |
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| Priests convey the commandments of the divine |
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| Conquerors control conquered |
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| Laws made by and for the people |
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| Anti-democracy because of Athen's direct democracy. Three classes, Guardian, Soldier, Worker, no family. Reason rules. Souls made of gold, silver, bronze. Women could be guardians. |
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| Golden mean, people are wise together. Still saw problems in democracy. |
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| Mandate from heaven means rulers can be overthrown. Rulers must take tests. |
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Political ideas of Communism
No private ownership |
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| A result of the Industrial Revolution |
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| Sharing everything to be equal |
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French Nobleman in American Revolution
Wanted to soften social institutions and create welfare
Founder of mild socialism. |
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| Proposed communes with uniform amount of people, without marriage or religion. Fairly extreme. |
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| Founder of American Commune "New Harmony" |
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| The idea that capitalism was going to lead to the poor rebelling, and create socialism. He thought it was inevitable, but others took it more extreme. |
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Made Cuba Communist, led Cuban Revolution
Done great with healthcare and literacy rates |
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Used Communism to create People's Republic of China
Killed millions needlessly. |
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Believe-obey-fight.
Leader's word is absolute.
Statism: State is alive and most important.
Mussolini. |
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| Possessions are meaningless and society/government corrupts. |
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Justice as fairnesss.
Thought experiment with veiled ignorance.
Inequalities are inevitable, deal with them instead of getting rid of them. |
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| "People are evil and need a ruler to survive". Lived during the English revolution and beheading of King Charles. In his book Leviathon, he challenged absolute monarchy and democracy. |
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| John Locke's Social Contract |
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| "We have natural rights, state has authority if they protect those. People should respect if the state does. People are good, just without society, the few bad can take advantage. We can rebel IF necessary." |
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| Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Social Contract |
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| "Men are born free, society creates misery. We want a contract, and therefore in a utilitarian way, society should uphold that. Father of the French Revolution. People can revolt." |
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| "Government is bad and should be minimal. We should resist by not paying taxes we don't agree with." |
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| Salt protest. Strong pacifist. Aided in the independence of India and the split with Pakistan. Was assassinated for that. |
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| Against violence until the Sharpeville Massacre, then said it is sometimes necessary. |
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| John Rawls' view on society |
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Society should be individuals making decisions for themselves while respecting the rights and needs of others.
We need welfare.
Wrote "A Theory of Justice" criticized by Libertarians and Communitarians. |
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Idea is old, name is new.
People are products of society. Their needs are important, but society's are more.
Negative connotations because of communism, but communitarianism deals with society and individual responsibilities, and "collectivism" deals with money and common owning. |
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No such thing as society, just individuals acting separately.
Government is bad and should be restricted. |
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| John Rawls Libertarianism |
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| What is viewed as the minimalistic state, existing only for the individual. This is called "laissez-fair" or "leave them alone." |
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| Adam Smith's Libertarianism |
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| People act in their own self-interest, and that would create the best for everyone. Freest market. Richer people should have more taxes though. |
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Wrote "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" as a criticism of Rawl's "A Theory of Justice."
Extreme Libertarian, even disagreed with taxes.
Believed government should just provide policing, justice, and defence.
Taxes are forced labour.
Wealthy people will naturally help the poor to create crime, but no enforced welfare. |
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The philosophy of beauty and art.
Some say it's what makes us human. |
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| The mind of the artist, the artwork, the audience. |
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| Five original types of art |
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| Painting, architecture, sculpting, poetry, music. The rest were skills till the 18th century. |
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| Representational Theory of Art |
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| Plato - Art is to capture reality |
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| Expressionist Theory of Art (Aristotle) |
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| Aristotle - the way people react (emotions) to art are more important than the intentions of the artist |
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| Kant - art is only created if it is intentional; it cannot happen by chance |
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| Institutional Theory of Art |
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| Dantos - the artworld - art is only created if the intent of it is to present it to the artworld |
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| "Beauty is in the eye of the beholder" |
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| "The Golden Ratio is the meaning of beauty" |
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| "Beauty is a reflection of forms" |
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| "Four steps of reasoning beauty: Disinterestedness, universality, necessity, purpose." |
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