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• Assumption: human species can be divided into specific number of discrete groups
• “How many human species/ subspecies exists, & what are they?”
• Wild goose chase
• Use of differing criteria, unsubstantiated “evidence”
o Skin color used
o Other “scientific data” used, too |
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| 2 primary areas of investigation (1800s): |
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Definition
• Eugenics
• Biological Determinism |
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| Greeks recognized different peoples and gave them different origins b/c of skin color & etc. They didn’t have a hierarchy of people. |
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• He is known as the father of modern taxonomy & one of the fathers of modern ecology
• Life, Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
• 1707-1778
• Swedish botanist, dr., & zoologist – binomial nomenclature
• Homo sapiens was validly defined as the animal species to which Linnaeus belonged
• Linnaeus classified humans among the primates (as they were later called) beginning with the first edition of Systema Naturae.
• question of man's origin began with Linnaeus |
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• 1707- 1788
• Evolutionist, monogenist
• Rejected classification of humans as goal, wanted to explain human differences
• Varieties of Human Species (1749)
o No categorization of people
o “Travelogue” described native peoples
• Human variation due to:
o Climate
o Nature of the food
o “Evils of slavery” (removal from natural environment) |
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• (1752- 1840)
• Anatomist/ Naturalist
• Monogenist
• Skull studies, search for “types”
• Type specimen for humans: Caucasus Mountains
o European peoples closest to perfect of the Caucasus Mountains
Departure from the initial form
Europeans least “degenerated” from type
• Other groups changed from white to dark along 2 separate lines
• 5 races
o Caucasoid
o Mongoloid
o American
o Malayan
o Ethiopian |
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| is the interpretation of humans and human life from a strictly biological point of view, and it is closely related to genetic determinism. Another definition is that biological determinism is the hypothesis that biological factors such as an organism's individual genes (as opposed to social or environmental factors) completely determine how a system behaves or changes over time. |
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• All people from Adam & Eve
• Single origin (evolutionary thought)
• Plasticity of traits (traits can be modified)
• People change over time |
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• Populations from various pairs of “originals” (uncommon biblical viewpoint) or separate creation if separate species
• Non-plasticity of trait
• rigid view
• The doctrine that animals of the same species have sprung from more than one original pair. |
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• 1796 – 1860
• Swedish anatomist
• Cephalic index (head shape)
o Long-headed
o Intermediate
o Round-headed |
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• 1799- 1851
• Skull collection
o Native American- thousands
• Reported significant differences in brain size among populations
• Equated brain size w/ intelligence
o Caucasoid w/ Native Americans
Said proof that Caucasoid were responsible for the Indian mounds & artifacts
o Egyptian Caucasoid established (in his mind) |
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• Pseudoscience
• Ended by the late 19th century
• Gall
o Bumps & shape of skull gave lots of info
Personality, future, & etc. |
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| Earnest Hooten (1887 – 1954): |
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Definition
• Used comparative anatomy to divide humans into races
• 24 races: primary races (white, negroid, mongoloid), primary & secondary sub-races
• 1926 – AAPA & National Research Council – Committee on the Negro
o Focused on the anatomy of blacks
o Comparison of African babies w/ young apes
• 1927: AJPA – “prove that the negro race is phylogenetically a closer approach to primitive man than the white race”
• Race stereotypes about black athletes & black criminals |
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| Carleton Coon l(1904 -1981): |
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Definition
• Orgin of Races, 1962
• Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Australoid, Congoid, Capoid
o Descendants of ancient lineages
o Supposed fossil evidence
• Each lineage evolved separately & at different rates
o Caucasoids reached level of modern humans first
• Criticisms
o Combined “racial stocks” very diverse
o Poor interpretation of the fossil record
• Coon – 1950 unique pop or collection of identical populations
• Use of physical characteristics |
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| Difficulties of human classification (classifications become much larger): |
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Definition
• For infant mortality stats:
o If one parent is white: fetus/infant assigned to other parent’s race
o If neither parent is white: assigned to father’s race
• Treats ethnically mixed children as if possess traits of parent from most socially disadvantaged group
o Three brothers, Louisiana
Descendants of Houma Indians (history of intermarriage with escaped slaves & Acadians – French refugees)
Mixed community, classified as Negro until 1950
3 brothers from same parents, French last name:
• Brother 1: born pre-1950, listed as Negro on birth certificate (home birth)
• Brother 2: born after 1950, when Houma were registered as a tribe, listed as Indian
• Brother 3: born in hospital in New Orleans, listed as white due to French last name |
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• American Anthropological Association Statement on “Race” (1998)
Debate among anthropologists: |
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• Race
o Implies biological ancestry
• Ethnic group
o Social identity that individual ascribe to themselves & is accepted by others
o Group of people whose members id w/ each other:
Common heritage, language, culture, often religion, tradition of endogamy
Each ethnicity w/ unique identity |
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| “New” Physical Anthropology |
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Definition
• Processes leading to biological variability
• Function of genes, environment, culture
• More groups, smaller groups (e.g., Garn) |
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Definition
• Late-ish 1800’s to early 1900’s
o Comparative studies of physiques of convicted criminals:
“criminal anthropometry” –study of
• born criminal
Certain atavistic traits associated w/ behavioral traits
Herbert Spencer
• “Survival of the Fittest”
• Government used study to cut funding to the poor
• Social Darwinist – distorted the evolution theory
Francis Galton – mathematician, cousin of Darwin
• Thought natural selection could be used as a tool to improve the human species
• Measured thousands of Brits to id distribution of traits
• Made bell curves
• Emphasized twin analyses
o Degree of influence of inheritance vs. environment
• Founded biometrics
• Sweeping conclusions about heredity of traits
o Innate behavioral differences among social classes
• Observed family lines
o Deduced that intelligence runs in families |
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• Eugenics founded by him
o Meaning good birth
o Improving human species by selective breeding
• Goal: end “haphazard” marriage customs
o Negative Eugenics
o Positive Eugenics
• Book: Natural Inheritance (1889)
• Est. lab: Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics
o Coined term “nature vs. nurture” |
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• 1904 – Davenport
o Station for Experimental Evolution (Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island)
1st worked w/ nonhumans |
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-Founder of America Anthropology
• Protested (beginning in 1911) – loudest voice against this movement
• Malleability of physical traits depending on environment
• Showed differences in stature, weight, head shape between different generations of immigrants
• Lack of association of various criteria |
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• Measure of intelligence – markers of permanent, inborn limits
• Label, sort, train according to inheritance
• Channel into professions appropriate for biology |
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Test in order to ID & help
Existence of innate variation, but not completely limiting
Rejects labels
Emphasize creative education to increase achievements
Enhancing potential through proper education |
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- French Psychologist
Early vs. later research in measuring intelligence:
Binet’s Initial Study
• Various schools, measured “smartest” & “stupidest” students
• Small differences b/t good & poor students
• Associated b/t height & scores
o Thought “higher intelligence” in front of skull
o No differences in front of skull
o Longer skull in poorer students
o Poor students varied more
• After publishing 9 papers
• Unsure of meaningfulness |
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| Reasons for IQ testing, 3 main intentions: |
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Definition
Reasons for IQ testing, 3 main intentions:
• Develop techniques to identify kids w/ low classroom success
• Slective marriage
* put lower intelligence in jobs more suitable |
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| Goddard: main ideas, work |
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Definition
• Pioneers of Hereditarianism in America
• Director of research at Vineland Training School for Feeble-Minded Girls & Boys
• Popularized Binet scale
• Applied tests
• Argued for general use |
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Definition
• Pioneers of Hereditarianism in America
• Doctoral diss – 1906
• Revised Binet scale – 1916
• Professor Stanford U. – Stanford – Binet test |
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Definition
• Pioneer of Hereditarianism in America
- Eugenicist - encourage pairings, not sterilization
-goal to change from "soft" science to "hard" science
-tested military
- harsh racial views on blacks |
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| Brigham: ideas & influence |
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Definition
- follower of Yerkes
- created SAT
- divided immigarants based on country of origin
- Immigration Restriction act of 1924
-recants |
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| Influence of hereditarians’ work on American policy, society |
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Definition
* immigration laws
* sending refugees back
* military service
* education
* discrimination |
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Definition
• Result of evolutionary change in populations
• E.g. human sweat glands (same average #/ person: 1.6 million) |
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Term
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Definition
• Short term physiological response by Individuals
o Amount of sweat varies
• Skin color
o Pop adaptation
Natural selection
o Individual acclimatization
Tanning response |
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Definition
o Accidental discovery of effects of UV rays on folate (member of vitamin B complex) in the body
Folate: member of Vitamin B complex
One hour of intense sunlight can cut folate levels in half – if light-skinned
• Australia babies born after mother’s tanned during early pregnancy |
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Term
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Definition
o Low folate: neural tube defects
o Also needed for sperm production
o Folate: production and maintenance of new cells
Darker skin protects skin – keeps UV rays from depleting folate
o Selection acts on both males & females!
So:
o In tropics dark skin evolved to block out sun & protect body’s folate reserves
o Far from the equator, evolution of lighter skin to use sun to produce adequate vitamin D during winter months |
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| Sexual dimorphism in skin color |
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Definition
o Females: lighter skin to maximize vitamin D production – necessary for pregnancy & lactation
o Males: darker skin to protect folate levels – keeping high for sperm production |
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Term
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Definition
o Far from the equator, evolution of lighter skin to use sun to produce adequate vitamin D during winter months
o Females: lighter skin to maximize vitamin D production – necessary for pregnancy & lactation
o Males: darker skin to protect folate levels – keeping high for sperm production |
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Term
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Definition
1. Vitamin D deficiency leads to impaired bone growth & maintenance
a. Rickets (kids): bowing of leg bones, pelvic deformation |
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| Selective pressures for light skin & dark skin: |
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Definition
• Dark skin blocks absorption of UV rays at higher latitudes
• Lighter skin selected for humans migrated north from Africa to Europe (rickets as selective force)
o Gradual adjustment to selective forces
Mesolithic: detriments to dark-skinned people in area of low sunlight
Early Europeans: evidence of poor mineralization & insufficient calcium
o Selection for light-pigmented individuals
Also: increased use of fish, rich in vitamin D |
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