Term
| Total volume of blood in a healthy adult |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Plasma - 3 litres
Formed elements - 2.5 litres
Red Cells (Erythrocytes)
White cells (Leukocytes)
Platelets (Thrombocytes) |
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Term
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Definition
| Fresh blood with anticoagulant spun un centrifuge for 10 mins at 2000 rpm, 45% of whole blood volume normally, Lower = anaemia, higher = polycthaemia, higher but lower overall volume = dehydration |
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Term
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Definition
| Blood loss, diet, haemolytic disease |
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Term
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Definition
Physiologically e.g. altidute
Polycythaemia vera (bone marrow tumours) |
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Term
| Symptoms and variations of polcythaemia |
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Definition
ruddy complexion, headache, blurred/patchy vision, confusion, stroke/coma
Absolute erythrocytosis = raised red cell mass, normale volume
Apparant erthrocytosis = normal cell mass, reduced volume
Treatment = venesection |
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Term
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Definition
Water - 90%
Protein - 8%
Albumin - 60% of total protein
Globulins - 36 % of total protein
Fibrinogen
Others |
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Term
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Definition
Albumins- osmotic pressure and carriers
Globulins - Enzymes, clotting factors
Fibrinogen - Clotting
Transferin - Iron transfer |
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Term
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Definition
Cells swell and lose shpae
Cells collapse but cytoskeleton stays intact |
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Term
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Definition
Nitrogenous waste
Organic nutrients
Eletrolytes
Cations and anions
Respiratory gases |
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Term
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Definition
| Red blood cells, no nucleus or organelles, biconcave disk |
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Term
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Definition
| White blood cells, defenders |
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Term
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Definition
| Multilobed nucleus, phagocytes |
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Term
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Definition
| Bilobed nucleus, kills parasites |
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Term
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Definition
| Multilobed nucleus, Secrete chemical mediators in inflammation and allergic reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| large kidney shaped nucleus, phagocytosis, mature into macrophages |
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Term
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Definition
Large nucleus almost no cytoplasm
B cells - secrete antibodies
T cells - secrete cytokines
Others - kill infected or tumour cells |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Cells swell and lose shpae
Cells collapse but cytoskeleton stays intact |
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Term
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Definition
Nitrogenous waste
Organic nutrients
Eletrolytes
Cations and anions
Respiratory gases |
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Term
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Definition
| Red blood cells, no nucleus or organelles, biconcave disk, diameter = 8um, thickness = 2um, highly flexible, live only 120 days |
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Term
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Definition
| White blood cells, defenders |
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Term
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Definition
| Multilobed nucleus, phagocytes |
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Term
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Definition
| Bilobed nucleus, kills parasites |
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Term
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Definition
| Multilobed nucleus, Secrete chemical mediators in inflammation and allergic reactions |
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Term
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Definition
| large kidney shaped nucleus, phagocytosis, mature into macrophages |
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Term
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Definition
Large nucleus almost no cytoplasm
B cells - secrete antibodies
T cells - secrete cytokines
Others - kill infected or tumour cells |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| In adults, most of the bone marrow is yellow, and unable to produce cells, except in ribs, sternum and the upper ends of limb bones. Children have entirely red marrow. |
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Term
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Definition
| Kidneys detect reduced O2 capacity in the blood and secrete hormone erythropoietin, stimulating erythropoiesis by the bone marrow. |
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Term
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Definition
| protein made of four polypeptide chains |
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Term
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Definition
| Iron containing non-protein groups bound to polypeptides |
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Term
| haemoglobin affinity for CO |
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Definition
| 240 times higher than oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
| Blood vessels constrict after damage, increasing resistance to blood flow, damage activates the sympathetic nervous system, which further triggers constriction |
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Term
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Definition
| Break off from megakaryotes, smaller than erythrocytes, only contain mitochondria, SER and cytoplasmic granules, secrete von willibrand factor, which binds to exposed collagen, and platelets, forming a plug, the platelets then begin to secrete serotonin, epinephrine and ADP |
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Term
| Platelet-derived growth factor |
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Definition
| promotes healing by attracting fibroplasts and smooth muscle cells |
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Term
| During clot formation endothelial cells release... which... |
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Definition
| heparin and antithrombin III, prevent further clots |
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Term
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Definition
| warfarin, heparin, aspirin, block action of vitamin K |
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Term
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Definition
| Cause easy bruising and bleeding, bleeding into the joints is painful, into the brain can be fatal, its caused by liver disease such as hepatits or cirrhosis, or vitamin k deficiency, haemophilia or low blood platelets |
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Term
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Definition
multiple forms, factors in the coagulation cascade are missing or defective, haemophilia A- factor VIII deficiency , sex linked, only affects males
Haemophilia B - factor IX deficiency, |
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Term
| Non specific immune response |
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Definition
| Physical barriers, neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer cells |
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Term
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Definition
| eliminate virus infected and tumour cells, secrete interferons, which prevent viral replication and activate other immune cells |
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Term
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Definition
Histadenes cause swelling, vasodilation and edema, Interleukins cause fever and make blood vessels more permeable to white blood cells and proteins, acute-phase proteins
Bradykinin causes pain and swelling |
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Term
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Definition
| Complement proteins create a pore in the membranes of pathogens, allowing water to enter and the cell lyses |
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Term
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Definition
| Can be antibodies, plasma or memory cells |
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Term
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Definition
| Five vlasses, IgG, IgA, IgE, IgM, IgD, light and heavy chains, fab region variable, fc region constant |
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Term
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Definition
| 75% of total antibody, produced in secondary immune response, during pregnancy protect the fetus, activate complement |
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Term
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Definition
| Found in external secretion such as saliva, tears, disables pathogens before they reach the internal environment |
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Term
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Definition
| Associated with allergic responses, found in blood plasma, allow mast cells to bind and release chemical mediators |
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Term
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Definition
| Primary immune response and react to blood group antigens, acitvate complement |
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Term
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Definition
| Found on the surface of b-lymphocytes, role unclear |
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Term
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Definition
| Cell activated by antigen |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Antigens possible on red blood cells |
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Definition
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Term
| Rhesus factor is normally only a problem if there is a |
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Definition
| negative mother and positive baby |
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Term
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Definition
| Antibodies produced against thyroid stimulating receptor |
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Term
| Insulin dependant diabetes meelitus |
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Definition
| antigens produced against pancreatic beta cell antigens |
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Term
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Definition
| antigens produced against myelin of CNS neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| antigens produced against acetylcholine receptor of motor endplate |
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Term
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Definition
| antigens produced against collagen |
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Term
| Systemic lupus erythematosus |
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Definition
| antigens produced against nucleic acid complexes |
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Term
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Definition
| antigens produced against myelin of peripheral nerves |
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Term
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Definition
| accelerated blood cell loss caused by membrane or enzyme defects or abnormal haemoglobin or parasites, drugs or autoimmune reactions, or decreased production of red blood cells thanks to aplastic anaemia, caused by drugs or raditation, or inadequate diet |
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Term
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Definition
| glutamate to valine, abnormal haemoglobin crtystallizes when releasing O2, causing a sickle shape, cells tangle together causing tissue damage and pain from hypoxia |
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Term
| Issues with blood transfusion |
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Definition
| wastage, shortage, storage and transportation, typing and cross matching, transmission of disease, need of human donors |
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Term
| Haemoglobin extracted from waste blood |
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Definition
| Cheap, but waste blood is diminishing |
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Term
| Haemoglobin from cow blood |
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Definition
| Cheap, plentiful, but long term affects are unknown and worries about transferance of BSE turning into CJD |
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Term
| Haemoglobin Microorganisms |
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Definition
| Not from humans or animals so no religous objection, infinite supply, potentially pure haemoglobin, but high cost |
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Term
| Haemoglobin from transgenic animals |
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Definition
| Potentially unlimited supply, but difficulties with extraction and ethical objections |
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Term
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Definition
| Pleurofleurocarbon haemoglobin substitutes |
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Term
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Definition
| dissolve large volumes of oxygen and CO2, nor risk of disease, near infinite supply, highyl stable, chemically inert, easily sterilisable, low cost |
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Term
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Definition
| Cant mix with water, need high oxygen levels, can cause flu-like symptoms |
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Term
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Definition
| Maglignant derivatives of non-pigmented hematopoiectic cell lineages that move freely thought the circulation, causes reduced platelets, abnormal bruising, suppressed white cells, increased risk of infection, red blood cell deficiency, aneamia, fever, shills, loss of appetite, swollen, bleeding gums, night sweats, bone or joint pain, neurological symptoms, skin problems |
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Term
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Definition
Acute -> rapid, normally occurs while young
Chronic -> slower progression
Lymphoid -> affects lymphoid cells
Myeloid ->affects myeloid cells |
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Term
| Acute leukaemias are normally caused by |
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Definition
| chromosomal translocation |
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Term
| Standard treatment for leukaemia |
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Definition
| chemotherapy to stop cells divind, steroid therapy to restimulate bone marrow, growth factors applied after chemotherapy helps immature blood cell types mature, radiotherapy, bone marrow or stem cell treatment |
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Term
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Definition
Autologous -donate to yourself
Syngeneic -Monozygotic (identical twin)
Allogenic - human donor
Xenogenic - alien donor |
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Term
| Two major parts of GI system |
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Definition
| GI tract and accesory glands |
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Term
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Definition
| provides body with a continual supply of water, electrolyters and nutrients |
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Term
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Definition
Synthesis organic from inorganic
Require organic compounds |
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Term
| Eight essential amino acids |
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Definition
| tryptopha, methionine, valine, thronine, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine and lycine |
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Term
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Definition
| Oral cavity, oesaphagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, anus |
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Term
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Definition
| mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, serosa |
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Term
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Definition
mucous membrane -> absorbative cells, exocrine cells secrete materials, goblet cells secrete mucus, endocrine cells secrete hormones
lamina propria -> contains blood vessels and lymphoid tissue needed for protection from bacterial infection
muscularis mucosae -> thin layer of smooth muscle to allow the mucosa to fold and stir lumenal content |
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Term
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Definition
connective tissue -> provides the GI tract with its distensibility and elasticity
Enteric nervous system -> regulates GI functions independantly |
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Term
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Definition
| two separate layers of smooth muscle, inner layer circular, slow wave contraction, outer layer longitudanal shorten the GI tract |
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Term
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Definition
| Inner layer of fibrous connective tissue, outer layer secretes water lubrication to allow organs to slide past each other, continuous with mesenteries and peritoneum |
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Term
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Definition
| masticcation, secretes saliva, which is a lubricant and contains salivary amylase |
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Term
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Definition
| Muscular tube from pharynx to stomach, upper 1//3 skeletal muscle, lower 2/3 smooth muscle |
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Term
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Definition
| Tongue pushes bolus to soft palate at back of mouth triggering reflec, upper eosphageal sphincter relaces, epiglottis closes to protect airways, food moves down propelled by gravity and peristaltic waves |
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Term
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Definition
| Empty volume= 50ml, full = 1000ml, secretes gastric juice, slowly releases food into intestine, regulated by the pyloric sphincter |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| pepsinogen secreted by chief cells, hydrogen ions and intrinsic factor secreted by parietal cells, gastrin secreted from G cells, mucus secreted from neck cells |
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Term
| Small intestine structure |
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Definition
| coiled hollow tube, 8-10feet long, primary site of digestion and absorption, three divisions, duodenum, jejunum, ileum |
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Term
| Secretions into the duodenum |
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Definition
| Pancreatic juice, digestive enzymes, bicarbonate to neutralize acidic chyme, bile |
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Term
| Absorption in the small intestine |
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Definition
| completed in first 20% of intestine length |
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Term
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Definition
| Villi increase surface area of epithelium, contain blood vessels and lacteal for absorption, microvillia increase surface area, form brush border |
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Term
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Definition
| Epithelial cells secrete bicarbonate-rich fluid, secreted in proximal small intestine, absorbed in distal small intestine |
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Term
| role of liver in absorption |
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Definition
| nutrients travel in blood to liver first to detoxify and be processed |
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Term
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Definition
| hepatic portal system delivers nutrients to be processed, hepatic artery provides liver with oxygen, hepatic vein takes nurtients to heart and general circulation |
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Term
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Definition
| cecum, colon and rectum, ileocecal sphincter is between ileum and colon, colon is a hollow tube from small intestine to rectum which concentrates waste into feces, absorption of most water, stores feces until defecation, teniae coli are bands of longitudinal smooth muscle |
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Term
| Four sections of the colon |
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Definition
| Ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid |
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Term
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Definition
| Colon empties into rectum, feces excreted through anus, internal anal sphincter = smooth muscle, external anal sphincter = skeletal muscle, both sphincters must relax to excrete |
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Term
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Definition
| surface glands, mucosa and submucosa glands, deep tubular glands, specialised glands |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete products via ducts into the lumen of the Gi tract |
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Term
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Definition
| Hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, mucous, pH is between 1 and 3.5 |
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Term
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Definition
| Secrete bicarbonate and mucus to provide physical barries and prevent acid damage |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete gastric acid and intrinsic factor to activate pepsin, kill bacteria and complex with vitamin B12 to permit absorption |
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Term
| Enterochromaffinlike cell |
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Definition
| secretes histamine to stimulate gastric acid secretion |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase to digest proteins and fats |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete somatostatin to inhibit gastric acid secretion |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete gastrin to stimulate gastric acid secretion |
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Term
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Definition
| excess acidity/pepsin, poor mucous secretions, irritation of mucosa or infection of mucosa |
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Term
| Symptoms of peptic ulcer disease |
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Definition
| Stomach pain, possible bleeding |
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Term
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Definition
| Gram negative, found in 40% of population, found in the mucus lining and duodenum, activates ulcers by causing immune response, which destroys tissues, making them vulnerable to acid and pepsin |
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Term
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Definition
| antacids, histimine or proton pump inhibitors |
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Term
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Definition
| Has excocrine and endocrine portions, produces pancreatic juice, rich in bicarbonate, produces pancreatic amylase, proteases, lipases and nucleases |
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Term
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Definition
| Inactive forms of digestive enzymes, stored in zymogen granules of acinar cells, activated by proteolytic enzymes in intestinal tract lumen |
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Term
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Definition
| isolated islands of endocrine tissue, islets of langerhand, produce hormones - insulin and glucagon, exocrine and endocrine portion derived from different tissues during development |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete bile, process nurtrients, stores glycogen, fats, iron copper and vitamins, removes old red blood cells, eliminates wastes and toxins, synthesises plasma proteins, secretes and modifies hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| liver, gall bladder and associated ducts, liver synthesizes bile, gallbladder stores bile, common bile duct transports bile from liver and/or gallbladder to duodenum, joins with pancreatic duct to form ampulla of vater sphincter of Oddi, regulates flow from pancreas and gallbladder to duodenum |
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Term
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Definition
| Materials to make bile taken up from blood in sinusoids into hepatocytes, hepatocytes secrete bil into the bile canliculi on side opposite of sinusoids, canaliculi drain into bile ducts, bile ducts drain into common hepatic duct |
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Term
| Protein amount needed and eaten |
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Definition
needed, 40-50grams a day, eaten 125 a day
(average) |
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Term
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Definition
| Split polypeptides at interior peptide bonds |
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Term
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Definition
| cleave amino acids from one end of polypeptide |
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Term
| Absorption of amino acids |
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Definition
| Cross apical membrane by sodium-linked secondary active transport or facilitated diffusion, cross basolateral membrane by facilitated diffusion, dipeptides and try peptides cross the same way, except cant cross apical membrane by facilitated diffusion |
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Term
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Definition
| typical diet = 25 -160grams of lipids, 90% are triglycerides, lipids are hard to digest and absorb as they are not water soluble and do not mix with stomach contents |
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Term
| Absorption of monoglycerides and fatty acids |
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Definition
| absorbed by simple diffusion, processed in smooth ER and golgi apparatus, then chylomicrons are secreted by exocytosis into interstitial fluid, chylomicrons enter lymphatic system via lacteal |
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Term
| Absorption of minerals: Na+, Cl-, and K+ |
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Definition
sodium = solvent drag with water reabsorption, actively absorbed
Chloride, passively follows sodium reabsorption
Potassium, passively absorbed |
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Term
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Definition
| actively absorbed in duodenum and jejunum, transported into epithelial cell, transported across basolateral membrane by Ca2+ pump |
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Term
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Definition
| transferrin secreted by enterocytes into lumen of small intestine, transferrin binds iron, transferrin iron complex binds receptor, taken into cell by receptor mediated endocytosis, some iron stored in enterocyte as ferritin, some iron transferred into blood, transported in blood bound to transferrin |
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Term
| Apsorbtion and secretion of bicarbonate |
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Definition
jejenum passively absorbs bicarbonate ions,
Ileum and colon secrete bicarbonate in exchange for chloride ions |
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Term
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Definition
| Failure of substances to reach absorbing epithelium, absorbing substances unavailable, loss of absorptive surface |
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Term
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Definition
lateral hypothalamus = feeding centre (promotes eatin)
Ventromedial hypothalamus = satiety centre = inhibits eating |
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Term
| Lesions and stimulationg of hypothalamus areas |
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Definition
Lesions in ventromedial = voracious eating
Lesions in Lateral = cessation of eating
Stimulus in ventromedial = cessation of eating
Stimulus in lateral = voracious eating |
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Term
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Definition
nervous-reflexes initiated by distension
hormonal-feedback by cholecystokinin
chemical-glucostatic: central and peripheral effects lipostatic: release of leptin from fat cells |
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Term
| Peptides that increase food intake |
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Definition
| Neuropeptide, orexins, galanin, melanin-concentrating hormone, ghrelin. All but ghrelin produced in hypothalamus, ghrelin produced in stomach |
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Term
| Peptides that decrease food intake |
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Definition
| CCK, Corticotropin-releasing hormone, alpha melanocyte-stimulating hormone, CART, glucagon-like peptide-1, CCK produced in small intestines and neurones, glucagon-like and PYY3-36 produced in intestines, others in hypothalamus |
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Term
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Definition
| stimulates gastrin secretion and motility, stimulates ileal motility, relaxes ileocecal sphincter |
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Term
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Definition
| inhibits gastric secretion and motility, potentiates actions of secretin, stimulates pancreatic enzyme secretion and bile secretion, stimulates gallbaldder contraction, relaxes sphincter of Oddi |
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Term
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Definition
| Inhibits gastric secretion and motility, stimulates bicarbonate secretion, potentiates CCK, stimulates bile secretion |
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Term
| Glucose-dependant insulinotropic peptide |
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Definition
| inhibits gastric secretion and motility, stimulates insulin secretion |
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Term
| Cephalic phase of GI control |
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Definition
| originates in head, thought taste, smell, requires input from central nervous system |
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Term
| Phases of gastronintestinal control-Gastric phase |
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Definition
| stimuli originate in stomach |
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Term
| phases of gastrointestinal control-intestinal phase |
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Definition
| stimuli originate in intestine |
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Term
| Difference between parasympathetic and sympathetic stimulation of salivary glands |
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Definition
para=watery saliva
ssympa= thick saliva + mucus |
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Term
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Definition
| parietal cells produce HCl, carbonic anhydrase catalyzes production of bicarbonate and H+, H+ actively secreted into stomach, bicarbonate transported into interstitial fluid for Cl-, which diffuses into lumen of stomach |
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Term
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Definition
| acinar cells to secrete enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| duct cells to secrete bicarbonate |
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Term
| Electrical activity in GI smooth muscle |
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Definition
| slow waves of depolarization = slow waves |
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Term
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Definition
| propels stomach contents forwards, requires circular and longitudinal contractions |
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Term
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Definition
| Mix stomach contents, only requires cicular muscle, mixes chyme, alternating contractions between intestinal segments |
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Term
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Definition
| Food enters mouth, jaw muscles inhibited, jaw dropping relieves pressure of food, jaw contracts, pressure from food added again, jaw drops |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| swallowing centre of the medulla oblongata |
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Term
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Definition
| bolus descends in pharynx, presses on epiglottis, epiglottis covers glottis to protect pharynx, inspiration inhibited, bolus stretches esophagus, triggering peristalsis, bolus arrives at stromach, triggers relaxation of lower esophagul sphincter |
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Term
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Definition
| illness, emotion, pain, distension in GI tract, rotaction of head, ingestion of emetic substances |
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Term
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Definition
| nerve impulse triggers reverse peristalsis in the duodenum, pyloric sphincter relxes, diaphragm and abdominal muscles contract and gastro-oesaphageal sphincter relaxes, gastric and intestinal contents forcibly expelled through mouth |
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Term
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Definition
| Neurotransmitters released at synaptic junction |
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Term
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Definition
| Cell products diffuse to nearby cells |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
Chemical messenger
Cell that produces ligand
target of ligand |
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Term
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Definition
| needs pummps or channels to pass cell membrane, normal action of target response is enzyme activation or membrane permeability changes, synthesized independant of demand, stored in vesicles until needed then released by exocytosis |
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Term
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Definition
| Easily crosses cell membrane, receptor location within cell, normally acts by activating a gene, Made on demand and instantly released |
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Term
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Definition
| most lipophobic, except for thyroid hormones, target receptors on cell membrane, made for aor derived from an amino acid, contain an amine group |
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Term
| Peptide and protein messengers |
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Definition
| abundant, lipophpobic, target receptors on cell membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| Lipophilic, intracellular target receptors, derived from cholesterol, all function as hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| produced in cytosol of source and stored in vesicles until release by exocytosis |
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Term
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Definition
| time for a chemical to decrease in concentration by half, messengers dissolves in plasma have a short half life, bound to plasma protein have a long one |
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Term
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Definition
| Specificity, binding is brief and reversible, affinity=strength of binding, one messenger may bind many receptor, one target may have many receptors, no# of receptors per cell varies |
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Term
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Definition
| Chemical binds to receptor and mimics normal response |
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Term
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Definition
| bind to receptor and no response occurs |
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Term
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Definition
| regulatory, link ECF messenger to ion channels or amplifier enzymes, action is indirect |
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Term
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Definition
| intracellular messenger, triggered by first messenger activating G protein, which activvates amplifier enzyme, which activates secondary messenger |
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Term
| Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) |
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Definition
| secondary messenger, activates protein kinase A |
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Term
| Cyclic guanosine monophosphate cGMP |
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Definition
| secondary messenger, activates protein kinase G |
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Term
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Definition
| secondary messenger, activates protein kinase C |
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Term
| Inositol triphosphate IP3 |
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Definition
| secondary messenger, stimulates calcium release |
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Term
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Definition
| secondary messenger, binds to calmodulin and activates a protein kinase |
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Term
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Definition
| small amounts of ligand can cause a huge reponse in target, each step recruiting more participants |
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Term
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Definition
| INFUNDIBUULUM, POSterior and anterior pituitary |
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Term
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Definition
| stalk that connects pituatary to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| extension of neural tissue |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Posterior pituitary hormones |
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Definition
Andidiuretic hormone = water balance
Oxytocin =supraoptic nucleus, milk ejection |
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Term
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Definition
| Two capillary beds linked |
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Term
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Definition
| Affect release or inhibition of other hormones, target endocrine glands |
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Term
| Control of hypothalamnic tropic hormone release |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| unknown/ no purpose, but secretes melatonin |
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Term
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Definition
| thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
| regulates calcium level in blood |
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Term
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Definition
| secretes thymosin and regulates T cell function |
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Term
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Definition
| Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| aldosterone, secreted from zona glomerulosa, regulates sodium and potassium levels |
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Term
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Definition
| cortisol, secreted from zonae fasciculata and reticularis, regulates bodies response to stress and metabolism |
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Term
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Definition
| androgens, secreted from zonae fasciculata and reitcularis, regulate reproductive function |
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Term
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Definition
| Secretory cells = chromaffin cells, under neural control |
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Term
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Definition
| inability to produce adrenaline, caused by mutation, defective adrenal medulla, inability to synthesize ACTH |
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Term
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Definition
| pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal gland, pancreas, ovaries/testes, placenta(if pregnant) |
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Term
| Secondary endocrine organs |
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Definition
| Heart, kidney, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin |
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Term
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Definition
Endocrine cells: Alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells, f cells,
Exocrine cells: acinar cells, duct cells |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| secrete pancreatic polypeptide |
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Term
| Acinar cells and duct cells |
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Definition
| make up the exocrine pancreas |
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Term
| Hormones produced by testes |
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Definition
| Testosterone and androstenedione |
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Term
| Hormones produced by ovaries |
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Definition
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Term
| Hormones produced by placenta while active |
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Definition
| Estrogens and progesterone |
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Term
| Hormones produced by GI tract |
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Definition
| Cgolecystokinin, secretin, gastrin and more |
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Term
| Hormones produced by heart |
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Definition
| atrial natriuretic peptide |
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Term
| Hormones produced by kidney |
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Definition
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Term
| Hormones produced by liver |
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Definition
| Insulin-like growth factors ( somatomedins) |
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Term
| Hormones produced by skin and kidneys |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Stress-> hypothalamus -> increased corticotropin releasing hormone secretion -> Anterior pituitary -> increased adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion -> adrenal cortex -> increased cortisol secretion |
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Term
| Humoral control starting at blood glucose |
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Definition
| higher blood glucose -> increased insulin secretion in the beta cells of the pancreas -> increased glucose uptake -> lower blood glucose |
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Term
| Humoral control starting at blood K+ |
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Definition
| Increased blood K+-> increased aldosterone secretion in the adrenal cortex-> increased K+ excretion in the kidneys -> lower blood K+ |
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Term
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Definition
| peptides, catecholamines, dissolved in plasma |
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Term
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Definition
| steroid/ thyroid hormones, bound to carrier proteins, need to unbind to bind to receptor or be metabolized, longer half life |
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Term
| Praimry versus secondary secretion disorders |
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Definition
Primary = abnormality in endocrine organ secreting hormone
Secondary= Abnormality in tropic hormone |
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Term
| How is abnormal secretion normally dealt with |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| replaces and exceeds normal, causes atrophy of gland |
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Term
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Definition
| Effect of two hormones facour each other and the net = more than the sum |
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Term
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Definition
| One hormone needed for another to exert its effects |
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Term
| Delivery of lipids to cells |
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Definition
| transported in blood from GI to liver, adipose tissue and other cells in chylomicrons, from liver to body cells in VLDLs |
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Term
| Lipoprotein lipase is located |
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Definition
| ON INNER surface of capillaries |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| rate of energy expenditure of a person awake, resting, lying down and fasted for 12 hours |
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Term
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Definition
| Increased glucose and amino acids in plasma |
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Term
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Definition
peptide hormone secreted from alpha cells
promotes breakdown of energy storage molecules, promotes glucose sparing for nervous system |
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Term
| Drugs for treating diabetes |
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Definition
| Sulfonylureas and meglitinides, alpha glucosidase inhibitors, biguanides, PPAR activators, amylin analogs, Incretin, Inhaled insulin |
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Term
| Sulfonylureas and megilitinides |
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Definition
| Stimulates insulin secretion by closing beta cell Katp channels and depolarizing the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| decrease intestinal glucose uptake by blocking intestinal enzymes that digest complex carbohydrates |
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Term
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Definition
| reduce plasmaglucose by decreasing hepatic gluconeogenesis, mechanism of action unsure |
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Term
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Definition
| Increase gene transcription for proteins that promote glucose utilization and fatty acid metabolism, work by activating PPAR gamma, a nuclear receptor activator |
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Term
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Definition
| reduce plasma glucose by delaying gastric emptying, supress glucagon secretion and promote satiety |
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Term
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Definition
| same as endogenous insulin |
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Term
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Definition
| Increased number and size of cells and increase bone length and thickness |
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Term
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Definition
| HGH, somatomedins, insulin, thyroid hormones, sex hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| Increase cell size and number, inhibit glucose uptake into adipose tissue and skeletal muscle, stimulate lipolysis in adipose tissue, stimulate gluconeogenesis in liver, increase amino acid uptake in cells |
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Term
| Factors increasing GHRH release |
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Definition
| decrease in fatty acids or glucose, increasing amino acids, sleep, exercise stress, circadian rhythm |
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Term
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Definition
| = calcium phosphate crystals |
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Term
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Definition
Osteoblasts = bone makers (deposition)
Osteoclasts = bone breakers (resorption)
Osteocyts = bone maintainers |
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Term
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Definition
| Osteoblasts lay down osteoid, calcification, osteoblast becomes immobilized then becomes osteocyte, osteocyte maintains surrounding osteoid |
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Term
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Definition
| Osteoclasts secrete acid and enzymes, acid dissolves calcium phosphate crystals, enzymes degrade osteoid, calcium and phosphate released into blood |
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Term
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Definition
Increase in width: osteoblasts lay down ner bone on outer surface, osteoclasts resorb bone in inner surface
Inrease in length: osteoblasts lay down new bone at epiphyseal plates |
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Term
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Definition
| Epiphyseal plate, marrow cavity, epiphysis(ends) |
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Term
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Definition
| Chondrocytes produce new cartilage in epiphyseal plate, epiphyseal plate widens causing bone to length, chondrocytes die and are replaced by osteoblasts which lay down bone, epiphyseal plate closes permanently during puberty |
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Term
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Definition
| 99% of body calcium, calcified matrix of bone |
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Term
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Definition
| alters reabsorption of Ca2+, initiates protein synthesis in osteoclasts |
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Term
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Definition
| Produced in thyroid glands, prevents bone resoption and enhances kidney excretion |
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Term
| Dwarfism, gigantism and acromegaly |
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Definition
| decreased gh secretion in children, increased gh secretion in children, increased gh secretion in adutls |
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Term
| Follicular cells in the thyroid |
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Definition
| synthesize thyroid hormones, which are stored in collloid until secretion |
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Term
| Thyroglobulin in thyroid hormone synthesis |
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Definition
| precursor for thyroid hormones, contains tyrosine residues, found in colloid |
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Term
| Iodide in thyroid hormone synthesis |
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Definition
| Added to thyroglobulin to form thyroid hormones, actively transported from blood to colloid |
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Term
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Definition
| Most abundant form of thyroid hormones, but last active, provides long loop negative feed back, converted to T3 at taraget tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| not as much made, but more active |
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Term
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Definition
| Increases oxygen consumption and metabolic heat production, increases protein catabolism, may cause muscle weakness, hyperexcitable reflexes and pyscological disturbances, influence betaadrenergenic receptors in heart |
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Term
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Definition
| Slow metabolic rate and oxygen consumption, decreases protein synthesis, slowed reflexes, causes cretinism in infants, bradycardia |
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Term
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Definition
| hypertrophy of tissues in eye socket, caused by hyperthyroidism |
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Term
| Treatment for excess thyroid hormones secretion |
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Definition
| Surgery, radioactive iodine. anti-thyroid drugs |
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Term
| Role of cortisol in stress response |
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Definition
| Mobilizes energy stores, suppresses immune response |
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Term
| Effects of abnormal clucocorticoid secretion |
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Definition
| Cushings syndrome causes hyperglycemia and protein deplection, addisons disease |
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Term
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Definition
| produce gametes and secrete sex hormones |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| code for testis determining factor, if present, causes fetus to develop testes |
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Term
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Definition
| structures that develop differently depending on the gender |
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Term
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Definition
Male -> glans penis
Female -> Clitoris |
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Term
| Ureathral folds and groove |
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Definition
Male -> Shaft of penis
Female-> labia minora, opening of vagina and urethra |
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Term
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Definition
Female -> Labia majora
Male -> Shaft of penis and scrotum |
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Term
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Definition
Female-> Forms ovary
Male->regresses |
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Term
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Definition
male-> forms testes
female -> regresses |
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Term
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Definition
Male- becomes epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicle
Female ->regresses |
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Term
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Definition
Female-> becomes fallopian tube, uterus, cervix and upper 1/3 of vagina
Male-> regresses |
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Term
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Definition
leydig cells->secrete testosterone
sertoli cells->support sperm development |
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Term
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Definition
| Masculinizes reproductive tract and maintains it, essential for spermatogenesis, induces male pattern of hair growth, thickens vocal cords, promotes muscle and bone strength, can cause aggressiveness (unsure how much is due to testosterone) |
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Term
| Functions of sertoli cells |
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Definition
| support sperm development, secrete luminal fluid, secrete androgen binding protein, stimulate spermatogenesis, secrete inhibitin |
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Term
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Definition
| male copulatory organ, sperm ejects through urethra |
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Term
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Definition
| Suspended below penis, houses testes, 2-3degrees cooler than body temp |
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Term
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Definition
| seminiferous tubules->rete testis->efferent ductules->epididymus-> vas deferens |
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Term
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Definition
| Secrete alkaline fluid, fructose, enzymes and prostaglandins |
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Term
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Definition
| Secretes citrus and enzymes |
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Term
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Definition
| secrete viscous fluid with mucus |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| stimulates androgen secretion |
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Term
| Effects of androgen in males |
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Definition
| stimulate spermatogeneis, promote development of secondary sex characteristics during puberty, increase sex drive, promote protein synthesis, stimulate growth hormone secretion |
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Term
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Definition
| Chromosomes, acrosome contains enzymes needed for penetration, midpiece, mitochondria |
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Term
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Definition
| target of estrogen and FSH, secrete inhibin, transports nutrients to oocytes, secrete estrogens |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| also called fallopian tubes, site of fertilisation, ova transported from ovaries to uterus |
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Term
| Infundibulum and fimbriae |
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Definition
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Term
| how is the ovum moved through the uterine tube |
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Definition
| peristaltic contractions and ciliary actions, duration, 4 days to uterus |
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Term
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Definition
| oogenesis turns oogonia into iva, number of oogenia fixed |
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Term
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Definition
Follicular phase - menstruation to ovulation, around 14 days,
Luteal phase - ovulation to just before menstruation, 14 days |
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Term
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Definition
| Follicles begin to develop from primordial follicles, oocye grows, granulosa cells proliferate, zona pellucida and antrum form, dominant follicle continues development, rest regress, corona radiata develops, graafian follice = mature follicle, ovulation, FSH and estrogens stimulate follicle growth and development |
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Term
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Definition
| wall of graafian follicle ruptures, antral fluid with oocyte flows to ocary surface and is released, ova enters fimbrae, LH surge triggers ovulation and development of corpus luteum in luteal phase |
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Term
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Definition
| degeneration-> decrease estrogens and progesterone->menstruation |
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Term
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Definition
| shedding of uterina lining causes menstrual flow, hormones decrease when corpus leuteum degenerates |
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Term
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Definition
| Uterus prepares for fertilized ovum, endometrial lining develops and grows, endometrial glands enlarge, smooth muscle layer thickens, cervical glands secrete mucus, estrogens stimulate development of uterine lining |
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Term
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Definition
| endometrium prepared for implantation, blood supply increased, glands enlarge and secrete glycogen-rich fluids, cervical secretions more sticky forming a plug |
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Term
| Hormone changes during menstruation |
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Definition
| Estrogen secreted from follicle, then corpus luteum, progesterone also secreted from corpus luteum, lh and fsh secreted from anterior pituitary, estrogens and progesterone inhibit LH and fsh secretion |
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Term
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Definition
| granulosa cells to theca cells |
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Term
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Definition
| lh receptors on granulosa, progesterone receptors on endometrial cells |
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Term
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Definition
promotes secretory phase uterine conditions, suppresses uterine contractile activity
promotes growth of glandular tissue in breasts
supresses milk production |
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Term
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Definition
| Estrogen levels decrease, reversal of some secondary sex characteristics, hot flushes, increased risk of heart disease and osteoporosis |
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Term
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Definition
| inhibit ovulation, prevents follicles developing, no ova release |
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Term
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Definition
| progesterone injection, lasts three months |
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Term
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Definition
| worn three weeks out of four, slowly release hormones |
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Term
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Definition
| increased risk of cv diseases, mood change, change in glucose tolerance, weight gain (linked to glucose tolerance?) |
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Term
| Other contraceptive methods (other than barrier) |
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Definition
| natural contraceptives such as breast feeding (NOT reliable) suckling activated mechano receptors which stimulate prolactin release, which inhibits FSH and LH production |
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Term
| Post-coital contraception |
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Definition
| levonorgestrel, competitvely inhibits progesterone, implanted embryo lost |
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Term
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Definition
| hormonal disturbances, and for males vascular problems |
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Term
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Definition
| several sperm reach ovum and try penetrating corana radiata, when one does and binds to sperm binding protein, the egg membranes harden, preventing more from binding, also sperm binding proteins inactivate, sperm membrane disintegrates, fusion stimulates 2nd meiotic division, chromosomes migrate from sperm and ovum to centre |
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Term
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Definition
| 4-5 days after fertilization, lost zona pellucida, three cell layers, trophoblast, inner cell mass and blastocoel |
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Term
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Definition
| After chromosome replication |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs 6-7 days post fertilisation, trophoblast secretes enzymes that digest endometrial cells to provide nutrients for embryo, secretes paracrines that stimulate decidual response, infiltrates endometrial tissue to develop into placenta |
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Term
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Definition
| fertilised ovum implants in fallopian tube, grows and ruptures tube, fetus must be killed, either through drugs or surgical removal |
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Term
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Definition
| weeks 1-14, weight gain, increased metabolic action, increased breast and uterus size, morning sickness |
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Term
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Definition
| loss of waistline, heartburn and constiparion, improvement of well being, return of libido and improved skin tone, baby starts to move |
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Term
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Definition
| weeks 29- birth, deeper breats, tired, anxious, uterus contractions in preparation |
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Term
|
Definition
| :arge and rapid increase in blood pressure, compromises blood flow to fetus, requires bed rest, possible sedation, and antihypersensitive agents, or termination of fetus to protect mother |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| First 24 hrs of parturition |
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Definition
| dilation of cervical canal, waters breaking lubricants cervical canal, increasing myometrial contractions |
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Term
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Definition
| 30-90 minutes, cervical dilation complete, head of fetus activates cervical stretch receptors, baby delivered connected to umblical cord, cord tied first, then severed. |
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Term
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Definition
| 30 minutes post partum, expel placenta, continued contraction to prevent haemorrhage, fall in progesterone and eostrogen |
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Term
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Definition
| Unknown, but possible a signal from fetus |
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