Sagittal plane- divides body left and right, think sagittal suture, midline

Coronal plane - divides body front and back, think coronal suture

transverse plane, divides body into top and bottom at belly button

medial - to the middle

lateral- away from the midline

proximal- towards the body

distal- away from

superior - towards the head

inferior - away from the head

anterior - to the front

posterior - to the back

• Makes up body framework - gives body shape

• Supports the body

• Protects vital internal organs

• Provides for movement

• Stores mineral reserves

• Produces red blood cells

• Bone is living tissue.

• It is a solid network of cells and protein fibers surrounded by deposits of minerals.

• Components:

– 32% Organic materials (collagen and bone cells)

– 43% Minerals

- Hydroxyapetites

– (calcium and phosphorous)

– 25% Water

• There are four main types of bone cells in bone tissue.

• Osteogenic cells respond to traumas, such as fractures, by giving rise to osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

• Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) synthesize and secrete unmineralized ground substance and are found in areas of high metabolism within the bone.

• Osteocytes are mature bone cells made from osteoblasts that have made bone tissue around themselves.

• Osteoclasts are large cells that break down bone tissue. They are very important to bone growth, healing, and remodeling.

4 main types

• Compact bone

• Spongy bone

• Cartilage

• Fibroblasts

Long Bones -proximal epiphysis, metaphysis, diaphysis

-Periosteum covers bone, is a place for tendon and ligament attachment, and brings blood, lymph vessels and nerves into the bone.

-Bone marrow (primarily yellow marrow) stores fat that serves as an energy reserve and contains blood vessels and nerve cells.

-Spongy bone is the inside layer of compact bone that is actually quite strong but lacy in appearance and contains red marrow which produces blood cells.

-Compact bone is a dense layer of bone tissue composed of cylinders or tubes of mineral crystals and protein fibers, that give bone its strength.

• Mineralization of the bone in which the organic materials (collagen) are completely replaced by inorganic materials

• Must meet certain environmental criteria for fossilization to occur

– The vast majority of individuals do not end up as fossils

– It is exceedingly difficult to find the ones that do

• Death and minimal exposure to scavengers

• Somewhere near water helps (ancient riverbeds and caves are a good place to start)

– Ground water leaches the organic material out, replacing it with minerals (rock)

• Covered by sediments quickly

– Protected from scavengers and decay

• THE AXIAL SKELETON - CONSIST OF THE SKULL, VERTEBRAL COLUMN, AND THE RIB CAGE

• Skull

• Vertebral column

• Rib cage (ribs + sternum)

* The Skull consists of 8 CRANIAL BONES (occipital, temporals, parietals, frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid) + 13 FACIAL BONES (frontal, parietals, sphenoid, temporals, nasals, zygomatics, vomer, maxillae, mandible)

* The Ears consists of 6 BONES (malleus, incus, stapes) and

* Floating in the throat is 1 HYOID BONE

Sutures - sagittal, coronal, lamdoidal, squamosal

Often preserved – many of the early distinctions occur with the crania and teeth, not the postcrania

• Enamel is the outer covering on the crown of the tooth which protects it from chemical and physical destruction.

• Enamel is the hardest substance in the human body because it is 98% inorganic.

• As a result, teeth are unduly represented in the archaeological record.

• A wealth of information regarding age, sex, diet, and health can be collected from dental samples.

• Dental development and eruption patterns

• Different age projections depending on the rate of maturity

Dental Wear - Used as tools

• Also called the Thoracic Cage

• 12 pairs of RIBS

– 7 true ribs

– 5 false ribs

– 2 floating ribs

• 1 STERNUM (breastbone)

• Locomotion – placement of the shoulder girdle, arm rotation, muscle attachments, and lung capacity

• The Vertebral Column (Spinal Column or Backbone)

• 7 CERVICAL (NECK) VERTEBRAE,

• 12 THORACIC

• 5 LUMBAR,

• 5 FUSED VERTEBRAE INTO 1 SACRUM,

• 4 SMALL FUSED VERTEBRAE INTO 1 COCCYX (YOUR TAIL BONE)

• THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON – consists of bones of the:

– ARMS (upper limbs)

– LEGS (lower limbs)

– SHOULDER GIRDLE (pectoral girdle)

– HIP GIRDLE (pelvic girdle)

• The Shoulder girdle is also called the pectoral girdle

– Clavicle and scapula

• Upper limbs consist of 60 bones (the hands and wrist contain 54 separate bones). - phalanges, metacarpals, carpals, radius, ulna, humerus

• The hip girdle is also called the pelvic girdle

• Consists of 2 bones

• Lower limbs consist of 60 bones (the ankles and feet contain 52 separate bones) - phalanges, metatarsals, tarsals, fibula, tibia, patella, femur

• Sexual Dimorphism – as an indicator of social organization

• Robusticity – size relative to length

– Biomechanics of bone – when force is applied to bone, it responds through remodeling to counteract those forces (Wolff’s Law)

• By examining the differences in bone shape among hominins, differences in behavior can be inferred