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| Mutations which lead to changes in a gene sequences transcription can be fatal, because amino acids are what determine the properties of proteins; most, or all proteins, would have a new amino acid sequence. |
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| example: human birth weight |
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| Mice and rats share a common ancestor 20 MYA. Humans and chimpanzees shared a common ancestor 6 MYA. |
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| Evolution of Resistant Genes |
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| Some individuals were resistant to things, and those individuals were more likely to survive and reproduce. |
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| Migration of Individuals into a Population |
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| Migration of individuals into a population generally increases the genetic variability within a population. |
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| Examples of Vestigial Characteristics |
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Girls forming cliques
Male nipples on humans
Boys being aggressive
Most body hair on humans.
Sinuses (humans)
Eye sockets in eyeless cave-dwelling fish.
Molars in bats that consume a completely liquid diet.
Wisdom teeth.
Palmar grasp reflex.
Pelvic bones in whales.
The appendix (humans)
Arrector pili muscles (humans).
Coccyx (humans)
Tonsils (Humans) |
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| occurs only when 2 species evolve under similar selective forces. |
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Can be based on:
-homologous traits
-similarities in physical structure of organisms
-similarities in DNA sequences in organisms
-similarities in embryological development of organisms. |
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| The longer two species have been evolving on their own, the greatest number of genetic differences that accumulate between them. |
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| Sex increased genetic variation |
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| "Survival of the Fittest" |
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| Survival matters less to natural selection than reproductive success does. |
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Human babies quickly and easily develop a fear of snakes, yet they don't easily develop a fear of guns.
For millions of years, snakes were dangerous to our ancestors and guns didn't exist. |
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| Evolution of Incest Avoidance |
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| Breeding among close relatives leads to a higher proportion of offspring with genetic defects and consequently, reduced fitness. |
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| Females and Reproductive Success |
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Females tend to have a higher parental investment.
Males invest less in offspring and instead compete for access to females.
Females have an easier time finding mates/sex. |
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| Males and Reproductive Success |
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| Males maximize reproductive success by mating with as many females as possible. |
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The sex that invests less in offspring will compete for access to the higher parental investing sex.
Sexual selection is the outcome of competition over mates.
Results in ornaments and courtship, weapons and combat, and men competing for wealth and power. |
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| The sex with the greater parental investment will be more discriminating when it comes to mating. |
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| Evidence of Mother-Offspring Conflict in Humans |
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Hormone production of the fetal tissue inducing increased blood flow to the fetus.
Resumption of normal insulin levels after pregnancy.
1000x escalation in maternal insulin levels.
Gestational diabetes. |
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| Modern Human Preference for Fatty Foods |
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| Ancestral humans that preferred fatty foods left more descendants. |
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Once begun, fixed action patterns are continued to completion.
Highly stereotyped and instinctive.
Can be triggered by an inappropriate stimulus.
Triggered by stimuli in the environment.
NOT an example of prepared learning. |
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| Who First Harnessed Fire? |
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Definition
Australopithecus africanus and Australopithecus afarensis.
NOT humans (homo sapiens) |
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| Homo sapiens last shared common ancestor |
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| Apes and Lorises and Lemurs |
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| Apes are equally related to lorises and lemurs. |
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| Adaptations by Males to Increase Mating/Fertilization |
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Sperm plugs.
Controlling resources
Mate guarding
Courtship
Ornaments/beauty
Sperm competition
Jealousy |
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| Intersexual Conflict over Reproductive Decisions |
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When to mate
Effects of seminal fluid
Rate at which a female should produce offspring. |
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| Red Collared Widow Birds Experiment |
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Long tails are preferred by females.
Long tails are expensive for males. |
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| Ultimate Limit to Adult Male Reproductive Success |
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| Traits Women Look for in Men |
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Accurate indicators of wealth and/or power.
Sexually dimorphic.
Accurate indicators of emotional fidelity. |
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| Traits Men Look for in Women |
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Sexually dimorphic.
Accurate indicators of age. |
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| Limiting factor of the lower parental investing sex's reproductive success |
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| Limiting factor of the higher parental investing sex's reproductive success |
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| A bird finds something found just outside her nest |
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| A bird will most likely retrieve a model egg that looks like a goose egg except it is larger if found just outside her nest. |
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Vampire bats tend to preferentially feed associates more than non-associates.
Consistent with reciprocal altruism. |
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Female belding ground squirrels more likely to give alarm calls than male squirrles.
Female belding ground squirrels more closely related to the rest of the group.
Consistent with kin selection (1st use) |
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| Australian social spiders |
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Eaten by their offspring.
Example of kin selection (2nd use)
NOT reciprocal altruism. |
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| Suffer NO cost of their altruism as measured by changes in snout-vent length. |
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Gay men have far more gay male relatives related to them on their mother's side than their father's.
Gay brothers shared part of their X-chromosome far more than the expected 50% (indicates a source for shared attraction to men)
Strong evidence that there is a heritable component to at least one source of male homosexuality. |
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| Because it is possible for a female to mate with multiple males, any of whom could father, male mammals and birds will always have some degree of paternity uncertainty. |
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leader of the Young Republican National Convention
opponent of same-sex marriage
pleaded guilty to a lesser charge after being accused of sexually assaulting another man. |
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Evangelical leader
preached that homosexuality was a sin
discovered to have a relationship with a male prostitute. |
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United States senator
opposed including sexual orientation in hate-crime legislation
arrested on suspicion of lewd conduct in a men's bathroom. |
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| Homophobic? Maybe your're gay |
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The authors of the article are coauthors of the original research they are reporting on.
Individuals who implied they were gay, but stated they were straight, were significantly more likely than other participants to favor anti-gay policies.
20% of the tested individuals who self-described as straight, sorted words and images of homosexuality faster when "me" was subliminally associated than when "me" was associated with heterosexual words and images.
Individuals with supportive/accepting parents were less likely to show homophobia. |
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| when the sexes of a species differ in size or appearance. |
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| the body is a gene's way of making more genes |
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both genetic and environmental
nearsightedness
caused when the eye grows too long |
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| Genetic determination for a disorder provides hope for |
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| The discovery of genetic determination for a disorder may provide the best hope for an environmental treatment. |
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| Island population opposums and longevity |
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| Island population opposums live longer because they have lower extrinsic rates of mortality. |
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Genes responsible for increased fitness in the youth contribute to decreased fitness later in life.
When a gene has multiple effects.
The p53 gene, which suppresses cancer, but also suppresses stem cells, which replenish worn-out tissue. |
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| Proximate Determinants of Senescence |
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Caloric restriction.
Uric acid.
Possibly, anything that reduces free radical damage.
Superoxide dismutase. |
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| Fruit flies bred for late maturation aged slower than controls. |
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| Beetles bred for early maturation aged faster than controls. |
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| Reproduction and Senescence |
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There is an evolutionary/ultimate trade-off between reproduction and senescence.
A direct/proximate trade-off between reproduction and senescence may explain why caloric restriction extends life-span. |
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| For any identifiable trait there is a trade-off with other traits, whether or not it/they have been identified. |
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| Choking on food is due to historical constraint. |
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| Those with a narrow appendicitis are more susceptible to appendicitis, therefore selecting for the maintenance of what otherwise appears to be an entirely vestigial organ in humans. |
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| Our stone age encampments probably would remind us today of garbage dumps and sewers. |
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| If visual acuity increased, it would likely increase at the expense of some other visual quality (i.e. night vision) |
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| Our blind spot is due to historical constraint. |
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| May be a consequence of our evolutionary history of living in small groups that competed with other such groups for resources. |
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| can swallow and breathe simultaneously; NOT like adults. |
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| the pivotal invention that led to modern life. |
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All humans evolved from humans who must have had dark skin (similar to the range seen in modern Africans)
Dark skin color was lost in populations that migrated north to Europe because of vitamin D deficiency.
Some human populations became more likely to suffer from vitamin C or B deficiencies after the advent of agriculture, despite greater food production. |
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| Your preference for apple pie over an apple is the equivalent of a goose preferring a tennis ball to its own egg. |
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| Evolution of Dental Problems |
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| Modern dental problems that require orthodontics are possibly a consequence of insufficient jaw exercise. |
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| High blood pressure may be a result of larger body size (due to a nutritionally rich environment) instead of high salt diets. |
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| Some genes may only be expressed above a threshold level of testosterone; may help explain the many differences between men and women. |
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May protect from cancer, but also increase likelihood of some forms of cancer.
Have increased substantially in the last 100 years and have also decreased substantially in the last 100 years. |
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| May protect against ectoparasites. |
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| The spleen filters pathogens from blood. |
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| Breast feeding and allergies |
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| Breast feeding decreases the likelihood of allergies. |
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| You, Your Existence, Your Ancestors, and Reproduction |
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| Not one of your ancestors has failed to reproduce over billions of years. |
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| Probability of Developing Cancer in Reproductive Organs of Women |
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| The probability of a woman developing cancer within organs of her reproductive system is proportional to the number of menstrual periods she has experienced. |
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| 3 Levels of Anti-Cancer Adaptation |
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Those operating inside of cells.
Those stopping neighboring cells gone awry.
The immune system |
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| Survival of genes rather than cells |
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| Cells managed to evolve to live as sterile workers within a colony or organism ONLY if survival of genes, rather than cells, is the basis for natural selection. |
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Be amazed that cells can never stop dividing.
Over the next million generations, the age of onset for cancer would be younger then it is in humans today. |
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| Why we don't die of cancer |
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| Those who did die of cancer left fewer descendants that those who did not. |
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| Disproportionate abortion |
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| The disproportionate abortion of female fetuses in some countries will eventually result in greater competition among men for women and increase the social value of women in those countries. |
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| 1/3 of women are murdered |
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| 1/3 of women are murdered in the US by an intimate male. Males are susceptible to be cuckolded. |
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| present in humans but rare/absent among other primates. |
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| benefits of sexual reproduction |
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| the benefits of sexual reproduction must overcome the costs of passing on half as many genes per offspring |
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a 50:50 sex ratio is the norm in most species
any other ratio would select for genes that produced the rarer sex; moves the ratio back toward 50:50. |
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| Mother/Fetus Conflicts over Nutrition |
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Gestational Diabetes
Preclampsia |
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| Some human sperm are not able to fertilize eggs and appear to be selected because of their ability to destroy sperm of other men. |
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| Increasing the risk of fatal child abuse |
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| Living with one non biological parent increases the risk of fatal child abuse 70x. |
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Depression may have an adaptive component.
Loss is maladaptive. Sadness results from loss. Sadness makes you less interested in engaging in behaviors you were doing previously. (Those behaviors may have contributed to the loss)
Serotonin levels affect depression. Low levels may be an adaptation to living in social hierarchies in which one is not the dominant individual. |
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| Emotional/mental problems |
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Many emotional/mental problems appear to be caused, at least in part, by genes.
These genes would appear to be surprisingly common if mental problems were all that they caused. These genes in other contexts might have some benefit. |
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| the symptoms of agoraphobia are consistent with an adaptive response to the dangers faced by our ancestors. |
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| sleep may have many functions or may be a byproduct and of no importance to itself. |
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| Emotions have the potential to be to psychiatry what physiology is to medicine. |
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| any philosophical account which holds that final causes exist in nature |
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| A high frequency of gout may be the price of a species with a long life span |
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| Cancer is the price of tissues that can repair themselves |
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| Autoimmune disease is the price of our ability to attack invaders. |
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