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| Judging the past using modern values and modern knowledge |
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| Looking at the past within the context of the time period the event / person / ect occured |
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| History of ideas within the discipline |
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| Factors outside the discipline that affect its history. Social, cultural, or economic factors. |
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| Focus on accomplishments of individuals who "make" history |
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| Focuses on the influence of the times on history. The "zeitgeist" |
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| 1. Knowledge from application of sci. method 2. OK to question religious teachings - BOTH ARE NEW |
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| Changes due to Enlightenment Ideals |
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| 1. Science is mainstream 2. Scientists are viewed as heroes and 100% objective 3. Necessity for instruments for quantifying |
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| New inventions, stemming from need for instruments. Mechanist view of people (passive and no free will) |
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| Frederick the Great: embraced philosophers and scientests. Nominated Humboldt to be Director of Edu |
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| Philosopher who changed the university system in Germany via three principals: 1. Integrate teaching & sci research 2. Freedom to teach 3. Freedom to study |
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| Scholarly Topics (early 1800s) |
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| Biology: Nervous system, hearing, vision. How does the mind learn / form ideas? |
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| Studied under Weber & jnd/thresholds. Lost vision, wrote satirical essays regarding medicine and science. Believed all objects were conscious and had a soul. Founded psychophysics |
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| 1. Mind & Body can be connected by finding a relationship between mental sensation and material stimuli 2. Methods: including limits, constant stimulus, and adjustment 3. Unconscious: large part of the mind is below the surface 4. Pleasure Principle: seek pleasure, avoid pain 5. Exp. study of aesthetics |
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| Presentist, Internal, & Personalistic |
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| Historicism, External, & Naturalistic |
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| Problems with Data Selection |
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| 1. Lack of reliability for accounts of events 2. Correspondence/diary = questionable 3. Bias for a specific brand of psych |
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| How to find Historical Truth |
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| Struggle among a diverse group of truth-seekers |
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| Invented the nonsense syllabus, 1st person to study human memory experimentally |
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| Rationalist, believed in some innate ideas, derived ideas from experience dualists, mechanist, interactionist |
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| Believed the pineal gland controlled the interaction between the mind & body. Created the modern reflex w/ distinction between sensory stimulus and motor response |
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| study of human knowledge and its acquisitions |
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| Philosopher, rejected innate ideas and claimed experiences matter. Mind is white sheet. Ideas originate from sensation and reflection. Sensation = info taken by senses. Reflection = mental activities involved in processesing info from senses. Influenced behaviorism. Believed in association and atomism |
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| Materialism: only a physical reality. Worked on vision and showed Convergence and Accomodation. Talked abotu subjective idealism: only certainty is that we perceive |
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| mind can be understood as a complex set of ideas, related to each other by force of associations |
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| Experience is everything. Mind has two basic elements - impressions (raw data) and ideas (faint copies of impressions). 3 Laws of Assoc: Resemblance (remind us of something else), Contiguity (experiencing things together), & Cause-Effect (event follows another with regularity = develop assoc) |
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| Dualist, Parallelism, Contiguity (strength of assoc depends on repitition), Complex ideas are made up of small parts - atomist, Holism (primacy of whole > parts) |
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| empiricist - all knowledge from exp. Mind is active at synthesizing our experiences. Created Method of Agreement & Difference = experiment and control groups. Concomitant Variation = correlational method. Underlies modern psyc |
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| Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz |
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| mind has limits that shape the effects of exp. Mind and body work indep. but in agreement. Monads - Simple, Sentient, and Rational (essence of humans). Continuation of Awareness: Petities, Perception, Apperception; thresholds |
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| Immanuel Kant (1720 - 1804) |
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| priori (prior knowledge) shapes experiences. Mind thinks in terms of cause-effect. Mental phenomena cannot be observed |
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Guillotin: body is a machine
Bischoff: consciousness is in the mind |
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| Robert Wyatt: showed the spinal cord played a crucial role in reflex - Voluntary (from brain) and Involuntary (from spinal cord). Habit Formation: voluntary acts become like reflexes after practice. Made a distinction between sensory and motor components of reflex |
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Anterior spinal nerve = motor fibers
Posterior roots = sensory fibers
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| nature of perception defined by pathway where sensory info is carried. Difference arises from diff. nervous structures & stimuli that excite |
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| measured speed of nerve impulses. Invented trichromatic theory (3 color receptors, r-g-b), resonance theory (diff frequencies detected by receptors in diff. places in cochlea) & binocular vision |
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| human faculties could be identified and located in the brain. No way to disprove it due to anecdotal evidence. Spurzheim brought it to the US; popular due to common man notion |
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| Helped to disprove phrenology due to ablation (surgically removing parts of the brain and observing) |
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| study behav / mental conseq. of brain injury or identifying people with mental disorder & examining after death. Ex=Phineas Gage |
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| Fritsch & Hitzig; exposed the cortex and identified motor centers. Ferrier located the occipital lobes and sensory area |
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| coined synapse how? 1. reaction time of reflexes was slow. 2. temporal summation (stimuli separated in time combined to produce a response) - this summation must occur where neurons met. |
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| claimed brain damage doesnt affect easy tasks, proportionally affects performance on difficult tasks - mass action. Equipotentiality: diff parts of cortex had equal potential to control learning |
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| Two point threshold: perception changes from feeling 1 to feeling 2. Equation: (JND / Standard Stimulus) = K. ability to discriminate between two weights depends on a proportional relationship, so heavier stimuli require a greater diff. |
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1. Psychophysics are a key element of new psych.
2. Not a 1-1 relationship between physical and mental world
3. Mental and physical events could be related mathematically |
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absolute threshold: as stimulus increase above threshold, a person experiences a JND. JND's above threshold = Difference Threshold
Methods of Limits = descending trial
Method of Constant Stimuli = random order, no anticipation by subjects
Method of Adjustment = subject controlled, least accurate |
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1st experimental psyc lab. 1. Examination of immediate conscious exp w/lab & experimental methods. 2. Study of higher mental processes using non-lab methods.
1 - Consciousness via self-observation (analyze internally) and internal perception (self obs but w/ immediate response)
2 - Inductive obs technique, language is critical |
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| 50% sensation and perception experiments. Found a personal equation. Discrimination Reaction Time = Simple Reac Time + Discrim Time. Choice React Time = Choice Time + Discrim Time + Simple React Time. Combined, called the Complication Experiment |
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Boring, student of Titchener, wrote of Wundt. Left out non-experimental work and focused on structuralism.
Rediscovery due to increased interests in history of psyc + decreased influence of behavioralism |
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| Used simple responses to controlled stimuli. Analysis and classification were minor. 1st true experimental psychologist. disproved of Titchener's systematical experimental introspection |
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| Ebbinghaus, Muller, Kulpe. Roots in philosophy, physiologists, and Darwin. Americans went to Germany and brought it to the US |
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| Ebbinghaus: experimental study of memory - non-sense syllable. Magic # of 7. Ease of relearning proportional to # of original repetitions. Savings Method = memory after passage of time. Remote Associations = direct assoc. between A&B, what about A&C? Ecological Memory=Memory for realistic everyday events |
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experimenter, replicated and extended Wundt's work. Retroactive Inhibitions: learn 1, learn 2, relearning of 1 is interfered with learning of 2. Jost's Law= two assoc have equal strength, practice will strengthen the older assoc.
Memory Drum = automatically presents stimulus materials |
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Fractionation = separation of tasks into components
Mental Set= determining tendency, mind prepares for certain thinking
Imageless Thought= essential element in all thinking is an image. Judgment is automatic and sometimes there is no image, which was a threat to Titchener. |
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| Originally a geologist (Lyell) wealthy, minister. Reflection of Journey on HMS influenced by 1. Malthus, an economist talking about welfare and population & 2. Farmers/Breeders who artificially selected species. Published book late due to 1. Poor health 2. Poor reaction to Vestige, didn't want to be associated. 3. Conservative sci nature; he spent years collecting data 4. Rushed by Wallace, who had a similar theory |
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individual diff. due to artificial selection, accounting for variation in nature. struggle for existence + natural selection via adaptive variation
Religious community did not agree, sci community = yes
Discusses sexual selection and human evolution |
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1. Comparative Psych = systematic study of similarities and differences among all species
2. Individual Differences = measurement of diffs via intelligence and personality
Functionalism: study of behav / mental processes in terms of how they helped the individual adapt |
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| Theory of Emotional Expression |
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1. Servicable Assoc Habits: expressions were originally useful, now occur with reaction to thers
2. Emotions are the opposite of each other expressed in bodily reactions that are opposed
3. Direct Action of Nervous System: side effects of the physiological arousal that accompanies strongly felt emotions
UNIVERSALITY in expression was key |
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| Studied instinctive animal behavior and learned of imprinting (phase-sensitive learning) and critical period (learning must occur during a certain period of time) |
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| Animal Intelligence: level of mental ability by species, used a lot of anecdotal evidence. Anthropomorphism: attribution of human faculties to non-humans |
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| Morgan's Canon= explanations for animal behavior should be no more complex than observational evidence allowed. Use caution with anecdotal evidence. Parsimony is key: look for simple answers with animal behavior |
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| Individual differences: argued intelligence was innate and downplayed environment. Used survey methods and twin studies. Created the correlation coefficient and supported eugenics. |
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