Term
|
Definition
| Suggested the Law of Effect, a purcursor of operant conditioning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Postulated a cause-and-effect chain of behavior based around reinforcement. Individuals do what rewards them, and and not what does not reward them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Developed the Theory of Association, a forerunner of behaviorism. In the Theory of Association, orgainisms associate certain behaviors with specific rewards, or specific cues with certain situations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 'Discovered' classical conditioning (Pavlov's dogs). Trained dogs to pair an neutral stimulus (bell) with and unconditioned stimulus (food) resulting in an unconditioned response (salivation) when the bell was heard. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Founded the school of behaviorism. Basically found that everything could be explained by stimulus-response chains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Conducted the first scientific experiments, verifying Thorndike's and Watson's ideas. This idea of behavior being influenced by reinforcement is called operant conditioning. Wrote Walden Two and Beyond Freedom and Dignity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov's dogs are an example. |
|
|
Term
| Conditioned versus Unconditioned Stimulus |
|
Definition
| UCS: not-so-neutral stimulus, such as the food in Pavlov's dogs. Without conditioning, the stimulus elicits a response, such as salivation. CS: the neutral stimulus, such as the bell in Pavlov's dogs. |
|
|
Term
| Conditioned Response versus Unconditioned Response |
|
Definition
| UCR: naturally occuring response to UCS (salivation from food). CR: Response that the CS elicits after conditioning (salivation when hearing a bell). |
|
|
Term
| Simultaneous Conditioning |
|
Definition
| UCS and CS presented simultaneously. |
|
|
Term
| Higher Order Conditioning/Second-Order Conditioning |
|
Definition
| A conditioning technique in which a previous CS now acts as a UCS. Using Pavlov as an example, pairing a light with the bell to provoke salivation. |
|
|
Term
| Forward Conditioning/Backward Conditioning |
|
Definition
| Pairing of the CS and the UCS where the CS is presented before or after, respectively. This can be delayed (CS lasts until UCS presented) or trace (CS terminates before UCS presented) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Also known as instrumental conditioning. Pioneered by B.F. Skinner, it influences response through reinforcement techniques (hitting a level reveals food). The Skinner box is a good example. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A natural reinforcement in operant conditioning. Does not require learning. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A learned reinforcer in operant conditioning. Money is a good example, or that of a token economy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A reward where a positive event increases the likelihood of a response. Ex. giving a dog a treat to learn commands. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| NOT PUNISHMENT! Rather a response that will stop a negative consequence, such as a constant noise. Ex. Monkey riding a tricycle to stop a blaring noise. Eventually learns to ride the trike. |
|
|
Term
| Continuous Reinforcement Schedule |
|
Definition
| Every correct response is met with reinforcment. Develops the quickest learning, but also the the most fragile; when the rewards stop, so does the desired behavior. |
|
|
Term
| Partial Reinforcement Schedule |
|
Definition
| Not all correct responses are met with reinforcment. Longer learning time, but resistant to extinction. There are four types: fixed ratio (every 6 responses), variable ratio (rewarded occassionally; very resistant), fixed interval (paychecks, for example), and variable interval (time is not set- waiting for a bus). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Artificial mini-economy often found in prisons. Individuals are motivated by secondary reinforcers. Desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens, which can be cashed in for primary reinforcers (cigarettes, candy, etc.). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| There are primary or instinctual drives, such as hunger, and secondary drive or acquired drives, such as those reinforced. Other types may also exist, such as exploratory drives. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fritz Heider's Balance theory, Osgood and Tannenbaum's Congruity theory, and Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance theory all agree that what drives people is a desire to be balanced in their thoughts and feelings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Performance = Drive X Habit. Individuals respond to a drive and satify it by using habits that worked in the past. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tolman proposed Performance = Expectation X Value. People are motivated by goals they think they can meet. Victor Vroom applied this to large organizations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| McClelland and Murray proposed that people are motivated by a need for achievement (nAch). This may be to avoid failure, or feel successful. John Atkinson proposed a similar theory, where individuals do not make unrealistic or risky decisions based on their need for success and fear of failure. |
|
|
Term
| Approach-Avoidance Conflict |
|
Definition
| Neil Miller proposed a state in which one evaluateds pros and cons. The closer one is to the goal, the more they focus on the pros. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Individuals are motivated only by what brings the most pleasure and least pain. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The idea that people are motivated to do what they do not want to by rewarding themselves afterward with something they like to do. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Postulated that a medium amount of arousal is best for performance. Specifically, for simple tasks, high arousal is best. Conversely, complex tasks are performed best under low arousal. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Optimal arousal (high for simple, low for complex) is never at the extremes. Rather, it forms a U-curve with the lowest points at the extremes of arousal. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Use of negative reinforcement to control behavior (also similar to avoidance conditioning and escape conditioning). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Promotes extinction of an undesirable behavior. After the unwated behavior is performed, the punishment occurs. Many, including Skinner, argue that punishment is not effective in the long run. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Refers to evoking responses of the autonomic nervous system through training. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus as a result of increasing familiarity. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Increased sensitivity to the environment following the presentation of a strong stimulus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Refers to experiments in which an apparatus allows an animal to control its reinforcements through behaviors, such as bar pressing or key pecking. |
|
|
