• China: nation that holds the most of our debt
• India: world’s largest democracy
• Brazil
• Russia

• A record of what we remember, guess, speculate, deduce, or imagine what happened (not a record of what happened)
• A construct of the human mind: form of a narrative meant to make sense out of the past
• The only past that matters is what influences the present (what helps justify the present)

used to decide what is important, real, true, influential in history

1.     Conceptualization

2.     Causation

3.     Periodization

4.     Impacts

5.     Trajectories

Culture:

• What it is
• Why we need it

• An imaginative universe composed of webs/systems of felt meaning
• Socially transmitted and intra-generationally produced
• Genetic deficiency: to survive their own contacts with the world, humans need additional sources of info and proper motivation
• Culture provides: models, blueprints, schemes, maps of the world; prompts, motivations, techniques for how to effectively operate in it

Ideology:

• What it is
• Why we need it

• A kind of cultural system – ideas, beliefs, passions, values, worldviews, religions, politics, ethics that determine group behavior/feeling
• Often subconscious, easily manipulated to disguise underlying aims/interests
• We need simple, self-justifying explanations when there is a loss of socio-political orientation
• Provides new maps of a social and political order

• Big: isms
• Small: mottos
  • “spending is better than saving”
  • “skinny is better than fat”
  • “kill all Americans”

• Population: tripled (longer lifespans), urbanization
• Demographic:  most of world still lives in non-industrialized nations
• Territorial: most countries colonies of imperialist nations à most are independent nations
• Political: by WW2, 7 empires collapse
• Family: vertical (rural, children subordinate to parents) to horizontal (urban, both kids/parents have links outside family)
• Children: education, later entrance to work force, youth = stage of its own  (not just a transition)
• Women/men: Patriarchy of family is challenged, altering all family relations

• Changes reinforce and reflect globalizing trends
• No single historical narrative covers them all
• Everything is affected, nothing escapes

• Come about through movement (ancient migrations)
• Transmission > interpenetration > revision > alterations of cultures/forms of life
• Humans are a traveling species (culture of movement defines us)

• World = totality of interconnected processes (not things); names like “nation,” “society,” “culture” are really just bundles of relationships
• We can’t see it this way b/c of way we are taught history (Western ethnocentrism)

developmental schemes:

• 2 assumptions
• problems with them

1. Mainstream “Western” history includes Greek and Roman until European history emerged, but excludes Byzantine, Muslim, Chinese, and Indian civilization
2. All civilizations in Eastern hemisphere lumped together in the “Orient” (assumes they all share the same culture)

• History becomes moral success story between good/bad guysEverything before them treated as precursors (Native Americans, Arabic science)
• Anything not included treated as irrelevant (Africa, Latin America)

• Example of how maps are misreading
• Correct angles for navigation distort size/shape of entities they demarcate
• Exaggerations above 40^th parallel where Europe is located
• Makes Europe larger than India, Middle East, China

• Maps = way to express our feelings
• Universal desire to place oneself at center of map

• Postmodernist: after WW2, with technologies that compress space/time
• Modernist: mid-19^th cent, with industrial capitalism and social reorganization
• Early Modernist: 16^th cent, with formation of world capitalist system (world trade, new discovery of oceans)

• Northern shores of Mediterranean
• Fertile Crescent in Middle East
• Indu-Kush Range, valleys of Indus and Ganges Rivers
• Hoan-Ho and Yangtze Valleys in China

• Develops as a microcosm of interregional civilization reflecting traditions of areas where it spread (not as a distinct world)
• As religion: hybrid of Syrian Christian monks and Mesopotamian Jewish zealots
• As institution: different in various areas (E. Europe, Mid East, India, Indonesia)

globalization

• agreement
• disagreement

• Agreement: the increasing impact of worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of contemporary life (social, political, spiritual, military, etc.)
• Disagreement: how it’s conceptualized, when it began, causal dynamics, consequences, what debate is about/over

• Growing economic inequalities (between rich and poor)
• Erasure of local cultural differences
• Increase (or decrease?) of American hegemony
• Environmental degradation
• Spread of militarism and WMDs
• Increase in ethnic rivalries
• Continuing oppression of women/children

• Presupposes that world order depends on geopolitical factors (political and territorial)
• These include states and the institutions that maintain relations between/among them (alliances, trade agreements, laws, etc.)

• Treaty of Westphalia (1648): resolves Thirty Years War (ended HRE), leads to new system of governance
• Organized around territorially bounded states
• Sovereignty: right to protect themselves against foreign aggression
• States manage own law making/enforcement and dispute settlements
• Allows possibility of diplomacy as a solution to international conflicts instead of war/violence

• Powerful countries have lack of respect for others’ sovereignty
• Law doesn’t acknowledge power imbalances
• Leads to new forms of coercive legitimacy (capitalism, colonialism, democracy)
• No ideology more powerful than nationalism

• Theory of legitimacy (rises out of sense of belonging)
• Narrative of a common history
• National character defined as a-historical (timeless)
• Patterns of ritual/symbolism
• Myths about foundation/origin
• Scriptable/observable expression of these components

• Globalization = spatial reorganization and re-articulation of economic, political, military, cultural power
• Developments in one region can influence communities in distant parts of the globe
• Has different, uneven impacts in different places, always changing

• There is more international interdependence, but no unified global economy
• World breaking up into several economic and political blocs
• Instead of new world order, return to old style geopolitics and neo-imperialism

• Propose to remake the world based on justice, equality, rule of law, humane global governance
• Protest sweatshops, free trade, pollution, nuclear weapons, sex slavery, deforestation, etc.

• Above: economic (corporate), political (imperialist), religious (fundamentalisms)
• Below: regional (EU, Asian, Middle Eastern), civic (UN, INGOs)

• Argument: world is being made into one place with overlapping configurations - 
  • It is little more than a map of variable tastes
  • The local can adapt the global to meet own needs
  • Has been hybridized - cultures and identities become "impure" and "intermingled"

• Multidimensional: doesn't privilege one domain
• Complex: interplay btwn local and global
• Contradictory: territoriality (defined by place/space) vs. telemetry (everything is virtual)
• Unpredictable: a uniform aspect of it (ex. butterfly effect)

• World is not becoming one place, it is a set of processes and networks ("bundles of relationships")
• As these bundles continue to increase/expand, we need to:
  • Design before devise maps for tracking them
  • Develop more just, equal, constructive methods for assessing/reforming them

Assessing/reforming the expanding processes/networks depends on 4 things:

1. Historical perspectives (to put in context)
2. Conceptual/theoretical tools (to understand)
3. Normative standards (to regulate/manage)
4. Political strategies (to engage)

1. Buddhism
2. Christianity
3. Confucianism
4. Hinduism
5. Islam
6. Judaism
7. Shinto
8. Taoism

• Belief in a deity superior to the individual
• Doctrine of salvation (about being saved)
• Code of conduct (about how to live)
• Set of feelings
• Sacred stories
• Rituals

• Americans refashion religion to meet their own needs
• Spiritual challenge = not to get right with God, but to get God right for them
• Mentality: if it feels right, it must be right

1. The "Transcendent" - what we look up to
2. The "Sacred" - what is radically set apart from ordinary
3. The "Ultimate" - what confronts the ordinary at its limits

• Chaos - feeling that things don't make sense
• Religion meant to make things interpretable and meaningful (but not necessarily clear or resolvable)

1. Bafflement: how could such things be as they are?
2. Suffering: how to endure it? (can't be avoided)
3. Evil: how to confront it?

Religion helps to answer these

• Attributes: doctrines, rituals, salvation schemes, laws, narratives, emotions
• Essence: particular perspective of way of looking at things - there is a connection between the way things really are and the way we ought to act/behave

1. Worldview: how the world is held together, the inherent structure of reality
2. Ethos: ethic or moral code that indicates how one should act

• Systems of belief/practice that reach out from place of origin and embrace/conquer other cultures and faiths
• Mobilizing power sometimes linked to military power or ability to absorb other faiths into itself
• Chief instruments: church and state working together, theological and technological innovations

• Monotheism > Judaism, Christianity, Islam join a moral code, salvation scheme
• Syncretism > Buddhism, Hinduism attract people of many different cultures and languages
• Writing, portable texts/interpreters > cross-cultural networks

1. Diasporic: scattered religions that people take with them
2. Transnational: missionary religions based on conversion
3. Cosmopolitian: built out of others in metropolitan area (ex. Christianity)

• Multiple cultures unified by rule of one government
• Based on conquest (gain things through arm forces)
• Justification: extend state's power?
• Ex: Han in China, Greece, Alexander the Great in Macedonia, Rome, Bantu in Africa

• Fighting units called "hordes" - skilled equestrians and archers, able to ride close together and shoot backward
• Organized by military leaders into family clans
• Used iron stirrups in saddles

• Unified all the Mongol peoples for first time after long period of tribal conflict
• Common goal = quest for Western territory
• Declared Khan of Khans, given name Genghis Khan 1206

• Mobility - up to 100 mi/day
• Military discipline
• Ruthless in battle - opponents feared them
• Siege technology was practical, readily assimilated, and advanced
• Sense of honor and loyalty

• About to attack Hungary, but when the Khan dies, tradition required the armies to return to their homeland to re-elect a new Khan
• Pivotal point in history

Seaborne trade depended on...

KNOW THIS!

• Navigational charts/instruments: astrolobe and quadrant
• Knowledge of winds/currents
• Shipbuilding design
• Naval gunnery
• New kind of ship (caravel) - combines square and triangular lateen sail used by Muslims

• For first time, begins to connect all the continents
• Changes what people are bounded by
• Helps create a shared history among continents
• New perspective - seeing the world oceanically rather than territorially

• economic benefits (land, minerals)
• industry and trade expansion
• increase reputation among other nations (wealth/status)
• military advantages (protection)
• spreading one's own religion

Kinds of Colonies (4)

KNOW THESE!

1. Trade: native people produce the goods, small enclave of merchants exchange the goods with mother country
2. Occupation: small number of Europeans rule for mother country, use native labor to mine precious metals and grow crops (develop nation's economy but for own benefit)
3. Plantation: use imported labor to grow one kind of crop grown on large scale, be as industrial/efficient as possible
4. Settlement: white settlers displace native people and remove them (killed, transported, or segregated)

1. Spices
2. Silver
3. Sugar

• New World divided between Spain and Portugal
• Spanish conquistadors viciously subdue Latin Americans, demonstrating the superiority of their "civilization"
• China = main importer for silver
• Two transshipment points
  • Seville > Europe, Middle East, Asia
  • Manila > China (most important)

• Demand increased after sugar introduced to Europeans
• Portuguese used enslaved Africans to grow sugar in the Atlantic Islands as early as 1450

• Most slave trade out of west Africa
• Unites all 5 continents
• Traders: Portugal, UK, US, Spain, France, Netherlands
• Overall, about 14 million became slaves, but many millions more died before they made it to their destination

• Drastic decline of African population, culled out the young and healthy (good breeders)
• Inhibited socioeconomic and political development
• Created intertribal and interstate hostilities, endless war
• Europeans used it to reinforce their prejudices of Africans

• reprimand
• terrorize the other slaves

• Slaves made 'socially dead' - cut off from their families, permanently dishonored
• Racialized in America to reinforce white superiority
• European nations that condemned white slavery in Middle Ages became leaders in African slave trade
• Legal status of slaves in US worse than anywhere else in the world - not even masters could free them
• In US, racism grew with spread of democracy
• Representatives from many religions had no reservations about buying and selling human beings
• Slavery diffused into regions without agriculture or plantations (New England, Canada)
• John Adams complained in 1765 that England treated Americans like Negroes - became a standard by which to measure things

• Why did representatives from so many religious express so few reservations about buying and selling humans?
• What was the reason for the diffusion of slavery into regions without agriculture or plantations? (New England, Canada)
• John Adams complained in 1765 

• Not just human badness...
• Europeans used racism as a defense of whiteness
• Unrestricted capitalism + new social order = break with traditional moral values
• Conclusion "industrial capitalism" is built on the backs of African slave labor

• Muslim traveler hired by Chinese court to undertake explorations for China
• On the verge of discovering all the Asian land masses, courts stopped funding his voyages and destroyed all the records
• They argued that China didn't need to know about the rest of the world - Chinese pride became blind to its own opportunities

1. Conceptions of the universe: larger than imagined, governed by uniform laws (not by religion)
2. Human beings' place in nature: not at the center
3. Empirical methods for acquiring knowledge (Scientific Method)
4. Social organizations that support scientific experiments (ex. German universities)

• A huge dispute in context of extremely rigid Christian society

• Form hypotheses - ideas about how things seem to be
• Collect data - observations, measurements
• Test hypotheses - experiments
• Construct theories - based on results

Used in everyday life as well as in laboratories

• Copernicus: the earth revolves around the sun (challenges Ptolemy's geocentric theory)
• Galileo: stresses need for careful experimentation, which can lead to discovery of new principles
• Newton: law of universal gravitation
• They changed the way people thought about nature

• French philosopher
• Cartesian theory: "I think, therefore I am."
• Doubt = key to knowledge
• Our ability to question things is what distinguishes us from most other creatures

• Reason should be used to challenge, if not refute, all dogma
• All truth accepted merely on faith is not in in accordance with reason

• "Dare to know" - learning takes courage; if it's not troublesome, you're not learning very much
• Copernican Revolution - human mind is crucial to understanding

• Goals: illuminate darkness, liberate criticism, overcome ignorance/small-mindedness
• Positive meaning: attempt to benefit from 17th cent. scientific and philosophical heritage (Bacon, Descartes, Locke)
• Negative meaning: attack on religious absolutism, superstition, orthodoxy

1. Reason: turn to the mind for whatever one believes (not just religion)
2. Experience: the material with/on which reason works
3. Progress: critical use of reason to advance toward more humane conditions

• Voltaire
• Baron de Montesquieu
• Jean Jacque Rousseau
• Thomas Jefferson
• Benjamin Franklin

• Supported criticism - it is dignifying

• Spirit of Laws: republic better than monarchy or despotism
• Separation of powers

Social Contract:

• all human beings are born free and equal
• the state exists to protect these natural rights

• Scientist, inventor, statesman, printer, philosopher, aphorist, autobiographer, nation-builder
• "Vicious actions are hurtful not because they are forbidden, but forbidden because they are hurtful
  • What makes things bad is our ability to discern it
  • Puts the authority back on human beings rather than the government

• Positive
  • Encouraged democratic thinking
  • Promoted scientific/philosophical inquiry
  • Spurred growth of Liberalism
• Negative
  • Rationality often used to master others
  • Reliance on reason > mask for power/domination

• Mind = 'tabula rasa' - blank slate, no pre-given ideas already there when we are born
• What is pre-given: natural rights to life, liberty, and property
• Purpose of government is to secure and protect these rights

• Individuals are free agents who act in their own self-interest
• Self-interest will produce public good, at least in the political economic sphere
• Self-interest > common good

• Government: protect the people's freedoms
• Economics: support policy of laissez-faire, self-regulating market is good
• Ethics: defend rights of minorities to express themselves

• national unification
• popular participation in political process
• spread of literacy and public education
• enhanced social mobility
• self-sustaining economic development
• growth of scientific outlook

• Freedom OF religion - worship as you please
• Freedom FROM religion - separate from politics

• revolts for individual and civil rights all over Europe
• altered attitudes of nations toward their colonies
• influenced the French Revolution
• inspired French Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen, and Constitution of 1791
• masked fact that rights only applied to those considered "citizens" (white male property owners)

• Instituted to create a "republic of virtue"
• Due to pressure of war and economic crisis
• 70% who died were peasants and laborers
• Destroys illusion that democratic change is peaceful/good
• Napoleon's dictatorship restored order, most responsible for spread of French Revolutionary ideas

• led to many other revolutions: Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Spain, Switzerland, Germany
• all fought in name of liberty but ironically all led to dictatorships