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| the persistently frozen part of the hydrosphere |
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| A semi-permanent or perennially frozen body of ice, consists largely of re-crystallized snow that moves under the pull of gravity |
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| If the base of a glacier is below the melting point it is.. |
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| If the base of a glacier is at or near the melting point it.. |
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•form in low & middle latitudes
•dominated by meltwater
•ice is near melting point throughout interior
Winter accumulation > summer melting – so these glaciers grow and accumulate, interior temperatures are near melting point throughout interior.
Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand |
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•form in high latitudes or altitudes
•little melting occurs
Air is too cold to hold much moisture, however temps never get cold enough to melt what little does fall & accumulate. Little to no seasonal melting occurs. |
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largest type of glacier on Earth
continent‐sized mass of ice that covers all or nearly all land mass within its margins |
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| Antarctica and Greenland contain |
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| 95% of Earth's ice and 70% of Earth's freshwater |
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| thick sheets of floating ice hundreds of meters thick that adjoin glaciers on land |
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| Austfonna ice shelf calving |
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| never touches land at all, but forms by the direct freezing of seawater |
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•tend to form on the lee side of a mountain
•tend to form on the North side of a mountain (in Northern hemisphere) |
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| glacial lake – former cirque, filled with fresh water (meltwater) from glacier |
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| ridge resulting from cirque formation on two sides |
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| As cirque glaciers grow, they spill out and converge to form them |
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| steeply sided valleys that enter the sea |
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Snow that survives for more than a year gradually becomes more dense until it is no longer penetrable by air and becomes glacier ice.
Sublimation and recrystallization is taking place.
Further changes happen as the glacial ice is buried deeper with increasing pressure |
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| A deep gaping fissure in the upper surface of a glacier |
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– ice at the bottom of a glacier may slide across its bed (the rock or sediment upon which the glacier rests)
-can account for up to 90% of glacial movement |
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-one with an abrupt change in elevation at its outlet.
-can form on the sides of steeply scoured U‐shaped valleys – Bridalveil Falls, Yosemite, CA |
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| a unique sheen given off of bedrock that was recently scoured by glaciers Polish easily weathers away due to chemical weathering processes |
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| During global glaciations (cold periods), oxygen isotopes in marine microfossil shells show |
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Definition
| the oceans in which they lived were more enriched in the heavier isotope 18O |
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| well-sorted glacial deposits |
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| Sandy ridges around Bowling Green, such as the BG cemetery or Sand Ridge Rd. south of the BG Post Office are remnants of.. |
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| proglacial Lake Maumee beach ridges |
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| The Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah are a remnant of _____? |
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Definition
| the bottom of a pluvial lake formed in a much wetter climate than today |
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| A strong correlation is made between the Pleistocene global oxygen isotope record (measured in marine microfossil shells) which records global climate changes and ________ |
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Definition
| orbital variations (Milankovitch cycles) |
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| What uncommon element do geologists find within the "Black Mat" and within the Greenland Ice Sheet at ~12,900 years ago? |
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| From where do geologists propose this element came? |
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| material was left over from a comet |
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| What is the name of the early humans? |
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Definition
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| What do geologist and archaeologists propose this population did to these megafauna? |
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| hunted them all down with their stone weapons which killed them off |
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| What unusual material do archaeologist radiocarbon C14 date to determine how the megafauna lived prior to 12,000 years ago? |
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| Another megabeast extinction hypothesis has to do with an abrupt climate change at this time. How quickly do scientists calculate climate cooled around this time? |
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| 18 degrees Farenheit ~2 years |
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| How many years of ice does the Greenland Ice Sheet hold? |
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| Have geologists located the impact crater to support the idea that a meteorite caused the Pleistocene megabeast extinction, similar to the dinosaur extinction? |
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| What is the unique crystal structure of nannodiamonds? |
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| Where are nannodiamonds found throughout the Greenland ice sheet? All throughout? Or at certain levels? |
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| certain levels, time of extinction |
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| poorly sorted sediments deposited by a glacier |
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| A ridge or pile of debris that has been, or is being, transported by a glacier |
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| curving ridge of sand & gravel, long, rounded ridges of sand and gravel laid down in the beds of streams running beneath glaciers |
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| cone‐shaped hill made of sands and gravels |
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| a whale‐shaped glacial depositional feature, typically made of till and situated amongst other drumlins in a drumlin field |
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| usually do not have input through streams, just precipitation /evaporation |
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| If two glaciers con- verge, they may trap lateral moraines between them, forming a ridge of material that rides along the middle of the ice stream |
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| forms as a glacier melts and recedes |
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| Swiss geologist & proponent of Ice Ages Theory 1830's |
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Definition
Wisconsinan (youngest)
Illonian
Kansan
Nebraskan (oldest) |
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| Land‐based features of glacial erosion/deposition |
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–ice‐rafted debris
–distribution of organisms
–isotope records |
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| Marine record is ________ complete than terrestrial record |
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Definition
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| Past or paleoglaciations are interpreted from a ____________ |
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Definition
| global oxygen isotope records |
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| Elements with the same number of protons and a differing number of neutrons |
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| marine microorganisms are made of CaCO3 |
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| from a marine sediment core sample |
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| Peak of last major glaciation |
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| Channeled Scablands in Eastern Washington State – formed catastrophic flooding of ice‐dammed lakes |
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Definition
-lowering of sea level
-crustal deformation (isostasy)
-stream drainage diversion (ice-dammed lakes)
-changing patterns of precipitation (lakes in southwest) |
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| Cretaceous warm interval (~100 million yrs ago) |
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Definition
| Continents teeming with dinosaurs, warm‐loving plants and animals |
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| Evidence for Cretaceous warm interval (~100 million yrs ago) |
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Definition
evidence from high latitudes:
–fossils from high latitudes
–evidence of higher sea level
possible explanations for this warmer climate:
–distribution of continents and oceans
–atmosphere composition (CO2) |
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| What are some of the causes of climate fluctuation? |
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Definition
1. Solar variability
2. Volcanic eruptions
3. Thermohaline Circulation |
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| Causes of Glacial Ages and Associated Climate Change |
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Definition
–shifting positions of continents and mountains
–astronomical theory (Earth’s orbits) Milankovitch eccentricity orbital shape (100,000 yr cycle) |
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Definition
| orbital shape (100,000 year cycle) |
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| inclination of rotational axis (41,000 year cycle) |
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| Wobble of rotational axis (21,000 year cycle) |
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| Trend in worldwide temperatures |
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Definition
•Climate change is the norm, not the exception
•No matter how much global warming occurs in the next century, in is unlikely to show up as more than a blip
•Overall Cenozoic era climate trend is downward (cooling) global warming will likely do nothing to change that |
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| Many natural variables contribute to global climate changes |
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Definition
-shifting position of continents and mountains
-changes in ocean current circulation
-changes in the atmosphere (SO4, H2, SO2, volcanic ash
-orbital variations (Milankovitch cycles) |
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| Major culprit of greenhouse gases |
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Definition
Methane
Water Vapor
Carbon Dioxide |
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| Renewable energy resources |
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Definition
-wood
-wind
-water
-solar power |
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| Nonrenewable Energy Resources |
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Definition
(Fossil Fuels)
-Coal
-Natural Gas
-Oil
-combustible (burnable) organic matter
-trapped in sediment or sedimentary rock |
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Definition
- a biogenic sediment
- accumulation and compaction of plant remains from bogs and swamps
-carbon content of about 25% |
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Definition
- a combustible rock formed by the compression, heating, and lithification of peat
-50-95% carbon |
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1) Remains of organisms collect on the sea floor and are buried by sediment
2) The “petroleum window” lies between 2,000‐4,500 meters (6,500‐13,000 ft) |
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Definition
a very specific depth and temperature range at which petroleum (oil) is formed
-Gas is lighter, less dense than oil & forms at higher temperatures |
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| Largest coal mine in the western hemisphere |
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Definition
| Black Thunder mine in Gillette, NY |
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| Warm, swampy tropical to semitropical climate |
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| In order to produce petroleum, these conditions are needed... |
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Definition
1. Organic matter production
2. Shallow sea shelf
3. Anoxic bottom conditions
4. Relatively high sedimentation rates |
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Definition
•70% are Mesozoic era in age
•20% are Cenozoic era in age
•10% are Paleozoic era in age |
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| Tethys basin is closing, but still warm shallow sea with much organic production |
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| 3 necessary rock types to form petroleum |
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Definition
1. source rock- organic rich
2. reservoir rock- rock unit that holds hydrocarbons- must be porous & permeable
3. Trap-structural (faults & folds) or stratigraphic (different rock types) way of trapping hydrocarbons so they don't move out of the Earth |
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Definition
| a very low density and wants to rise |
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| An _________ makes a good structural petroleum trap |
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Definition
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| Seismic geologists look for _____________ in the rock layers deep within the Earth |
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Definition
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Definition
-angular unconformity
-stratigraphic facies pinching out
-salt domes push up overlying strata |
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| Structural (anticline) and stratigraphic (low permeability rocks) traps are ideal because they... |
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Definition
stop low density petroleum from moving up and out of the Earth’s surface
-they collect, pool, concentrate petroleum to make it easy to drill and extract |
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| First commercial oil well was drilled 21 m underground by Colonel Edwin Drake in |
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Definition
| Titusville, Pennsylvania in 1859 |
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| How are they mining low porosity and permeability shales? |
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Definition
| horizontal drilling and hydraulic faulting |
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| It takes ________ the amount of greenhouse gases to steam and distill tar sands than to distill crude oil |
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Definition
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Term
| Bituminous sands (aka Tar Sands) |
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Definition
-petroleum deposit
-Mixture of sand, clay, water & a dense and extremely viscous form of petroleum (bitumen/tar)
-Found in large amounts in many countries, but in extremely large quantities in Alberta, Canada |
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| Primary sources of world energy consumption |
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Definition
Fossil Fuels
Petroleum – 36%
Coal – 27.4%
Natural Gas – 23%
Total 84%
NonFossil Fuels
Hydroelectric – 6.3% Nuclear – 8.5% |
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Definition
| block UV light but allows visible light in. The glass of a greenhouse just prevents wind from blowing the heat away. |
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Definition
exists high above the troposphere and absorbs many harmful UV rays from reaching Earth.
-We need the ozone layer to protect us from too much short wavelength radiation |
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| The Montreal Protocol (1987) |
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Definition
| is an international treaty (197 states & EU) designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. |
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