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| study of structure and evolution of the universe |
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| evidence for heliocentricity |
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| elliptical planetary orbits |
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Law of Universal Gravitation
3 laws of Motion, inerti
mathematics of change |
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| Foucalt's pendulum (1851) |
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Earth's rotation
north star |
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Earth's circumference
noon shadows in wells
syene shadow absent
Alexandria shadow |
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light from approaching star-compressed
stars towards Earth-blue
Expanding Universe-red shifted |
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element factories
heavier elements-stellar mucleosynthesis |
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small, dense, rocky
Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars |
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large, low density, gas-giant
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune |
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stronger magnetic field forms
arrest deadly cosmic radiation/solar wind |
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mostly nitrogen and then oxygen
99% of atmosphere |
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12-50 km
ozone layer
temp up |
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0-11 km
layer well mixed
weather
temp decreased with elevation |
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| surface, water, ground water ice |
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iron 35%
silicon 15%
oxygen 30%
magnesium 10% |
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lower boundary
separates crust from upper mantle
marked by change in the velocity of seismic P waves |
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non flowing, rigid
moves as tectonic plates
crust and upper mantle |
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shallower under oceanic lithosphere
deeper under continental lithosphere
flows as soft solid |
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| continental drift hypothesis |
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fit of the continents
glaciations
fossil evidence
rock type
paleoclimate evidence
lack of mechanism |
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| Earth's mantle moved by convection |
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essay in geopoetry
seafloor spreading |
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| evidence supporting continental drift |
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granite
lighter (less dense)
more buoyant
floats higher
35-40 km thick |
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basaltic
heavier
less buoyant
sinks lower
7-10 km thick |
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continental crust thins toward the ocean
transitions into oceanic crust
traps eroded sediment
develops into continental shelf |
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move apart
spreading boundary
mid ocean ridges |
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together
subduction, consuming, trench |
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slide sideways
transform fault |
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| early stage divergent boundary |
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| mid stage divergent boundary |
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| late stage divergent stage |
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symmetric
site of eruption/earthquake |
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| magma quenched at the sea floor |
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accretionary prisms
volcanic arcs
foreaarc basins
back arc basins |
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volcanic arc
magma up
volcanic eruption |
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spreading ridge segments
some cut through continental crust
characterized by:
earthquakes
lack of volcanism |
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slice through continentals crust
ex: San Andreas Fault |
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| magmatism derived from lower mantle thermal anomaly |
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covalent
metallic
van der waals
hydrogen
ionic |
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dominate the earth's crust
oxygen and silicon |
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cover large coastal regions
develop in places protected from waves and currents
fuel high biological productivities |
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river valleys flooded by marine water
mixed fresh and salt water |
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flooded u shaped valleys carved by glaciers
form bedrock bounded troughs
ex: norway
new zealand |
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| coral reefs in tropical marine settings |
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| reefs form on subsiding volcano |
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experience relative seated fall
via uplift due to tectonic processes
via sea level drop due to climate change
characterized by river incision, cliffs |
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experience relative sealevel rise
subsidence of passive margins (deltaic sediments)
global sea level rise
characterized by flooded river or glacial valleys that create estuaries and fjords |
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| mitigating coastal problems |
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Definition
artificial barriers built to reduce beach erosion
groins, jetties, breakwaters arrest sediment transport |
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potential energy driving flow due to
elevation above sea level
pressure exerted by weight of overlying water |
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| predicts water volume passing through an area of an aquifer in a given time |
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boiling water and steam erupts cyclically from geysers
water is heated to boiling point
pressure exerted by water column prevents boiling
pressure drops as bubbles for and water boils
cycle repeats after emptied chamber is refilled |
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groundwater resides in subsurface pore spaces
pores=open spaces within sediment of rock
porosity is total volume of open space
geologic materials exhibit a wide range of porosities
2 porosity categories
-primary-originally formed with material vesicles in basalt, open reef framwork
primary porosity may decrease: w/burial (compaction)
with cementation
crystalline rocks have little primary porosity
second porosity-developed after rock formation
-fracturing
-faulting
-dissolution |
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ease of flow due to pore interconnectedness
high permeability-easy flow |
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unconfined-an aquifer that intersects the surface
confined-an aquifer beneath an aquitard
example:Dakota sandstone aquifer-old fluvial sanstones interlayered with shales
defromation of Black Hills uplifted western end
Recharge in Black Hills fills a gigantic aquifer system |
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subsurface boundary
above it, pores mostly filled with air
called vaduse (unsaturated) zone
below pores filed with water called phreatic (saturated zones)
capillary fringe separates the 2 zones
moisture wicked upward above water table
perennial surface water exposes water table rivers, lakes, ponds |
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| water infiltrates through _______ areas. |
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| groundwater exits subsurface from ______ areas. |
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| local scale of groundwater flow |
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| shallow flow over short times and distance |
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| intermediate scale of groundwater flow |
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| flow of mod. depth, time, and distance |
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| regional groundwater scale |
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| spatial change in hydraulic head |
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| material permeability in water |
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1. where deep groundwater surface alonf faults
2. geothermal regions |
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boiling water and steam erupts cyclically from geysers
water is heated to boiling point
pressure exerted by water column prevents boiling
pressure drops as bubbles form and water boils
cycle repeats after emptied chamber is refilled |
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| limestone dissolution creates unique karst landscapes |
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disappearing streams
natural bridges
caves
spelcothems
sinkholes
springs
karst creates irregular terrain |
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| hardness-dissolution of carbonates add Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ these cations... |
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reduce effectiveness of soap
mineralize in plumbing and clog flow |
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contaminant plume emanates from a spot
concentrations highest near source
concentrations decrease with distance |
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pollution introduced over broad area
diffused across a region
more difficult to identify |
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| best management practices |
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| wellhead protected areas (recharge areas) |
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| wellhead protected areas (recharge areas) |
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nitrogen 78%
oxygen 21&
other 1% |
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| absorbs heat, cools the air |
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less dense and rises
air replaced by sinking, cooler, denser air |
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move fast steep
moves as underflow beneath warmer air
pushes up warm air and creates storm |
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move slowly
warm air climbs over colder air
pushes cold air as wedge
incline reflects less steep T and P gradients |
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| warmed air is bouyed upward |
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| air is carried upward along fronts |
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| converging winds force air upward |
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| air must raise to pass over mtns. |
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Hurricane
Typhoons
Cyclones |
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Definition
Atlantic
Western Pacific Ocean
Northern Indian Ocean |
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cover 25% of land surfaces
primary control? plate tectonics
extreme dryness, specialized ecosystms, low human populations |
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arid
evaporation-no permanent surface water
exist in both hot and cold |
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patterns of atmospheric circulation
eqquator
solar energy water evaporates rises as hot moist air
rising air cools expands rains
stripped moisture moves N or S
subtropics 20-30 N and S
sinking dry air wicks water
landscape below dries
earth's largest deserts
african deserts bracket equator
Sahara |
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wet ocean winds are driven over mountains
windward are is forced to rise and cool
moisture condenses and rains
leeward air w/o moisture sinks
sinking air warms and sucks water out of land |
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cool air over cold ocean water holds little moisture
air absorbs when it interacts with land
Atacama (Peru)-driest place on earth |
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air looses moisture crossing continents
land far from ocean moisture-->arid
Gobi desert in Mongolia |
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| stones with wind faceted upper surface |
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desert (salt) lakes without outlet streams
internal drainage collects water from flash floods |
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| coarser sand sized particles |
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| finer grained silt sized "dust" |
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| finer grained silt sized dust |
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bedrock landform
bedrock exposed along cliffs
breaks away along joints
cliff retreat inflat rocks creates plateaus
then mesas butles finally chimneys |
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| non horizontal bedding produces |
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| steep layer controlled cliff, less steep dip slope |
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| eroded remnant of alomst complete cliff retreat |
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| ramp like bedrock surfaces sloping up to a mountain front |
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| sloping surface of a coalesced alluvial fans at a mountain flank |
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| large regions of crossbedded sandstones |
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| glaciers from >5 km elevation |
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flow from high to low elevation
ice caps mtn peals
cirque glaciers fill mtn top bowl |
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spread out at valley terminus
greenland and alaska |
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ice sheets covering large land areas
flows outwards from thickest portion |
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| ice near melting temp (liquid water) |
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| ice belowing melting temp |
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| mechanical behavior of glaciers |
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Definition
brittle-uppermost 60 m tension initiates cracking
crevasses may open and close with movement
plastic-lower than 60 m
ductile flow in deeper ice
ice flow heals cracks |
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| if accumulation < ablation toe retreats upslope |
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| valley glaciers entering sea |
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| cont glaciers entering sea |
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| non glacial ice formed on frozen sea water |
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| 3 ways of glacial erosion-incorporation |
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| rock surrounded and carried off |
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| 3 ways of glacial erosion-plucking |
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| ice breaks off and removes bedrock fragments |
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| 3 ways of glacial erosion-abrasion |
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a sandpaper effect on substrate
abrades and polishes rock
leaves scratch marks called striations |
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| bowl shaped basin in near mountain top |
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a knife edge ridge
formed by 2 adjacent cirques or valley glaciers |
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a pointed mtn peak
formed by 3 or more cirques that coalesce |
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| glacial erosion creates steep walls |
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intersection of tributary glacier with trunk glacier
waterfall results |
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unsorted debris dumped by glaciers
lateral-along valley glacier flank
medial-midice from merging lateral moraines |
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Definition
sed. dropped by glacial ice, all grain sizes, unosrted, unstratified
accumulates beneath glacial ice
glacial flanks |
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| boulders dropped by glacial ice carried long distances |
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seds from oceanic glacier
calving icerbergs raft sediments away from ice
melting bergs drop stones inton marine muds
dropstones-differ from ambient sed.
inidicate glaciation |
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sed. transported in melt water
muds removed
abraded and rounded
dominated by sand and gravel |
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| form at stable glacier toe |
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| form at furthest edge of flow |
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| form as retreating ice stalls |
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long aligned hill of molded till
asymmetric form-steepup ice, tapered down ice
algined parallel to ice flow directions |
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long sinuous ridges of sand and gravel
form from meltwater channels w/in or below ice |
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swiss geologist
observed glaciers-they could explain erratics |
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glaciers-10% of earth
ice ages 30%
recent ice age ended ~11 Ka
covered NY, London, etc |
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year round frozen ground (permafrost)
freeze thaw cycles produce unusual patterned ground |
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| the pleistocene glaciation |
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Definition
young glacial remnants are abundant
Siberia |
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striated bedrock
tillites at equatorial latitudes suggest ice covered world
snowball earth |
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climate variation over 10-100s Ka predicted by cyclic changes in orbital geometry
1. earth's orbit shape varies
2. earth's axis tilt varies
3. earth's axis wobbles
variation lead to excess warming/cooling
ice ages result when cooling effects coincide |
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cooled rock fragments
ash, fragmented lava |
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| thin and flow easily (less viscous) |
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upon melting silica rich mineral melt first
this partial melting yields a silca-rich magma
removing a partial melt from its source creates
felsic magma
mafic residue left behind |
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Definition
magma melts the country rock it passes through
assimilated materials change magma composition |
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injection into cracks
melting overlying rocks |
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a mixture of coarse and fine crystals
indicates 2 stage history |
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| minerals (halite, gypsum, calcite) dissolves |
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| water breaks cation bonds on silicate minerals yields |
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metal loses electrons
decay of mafic silicates |
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| carbon rich remains of plants |
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| minerals precipitated from solution |
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short steep downcurrent slip face
long gentle upcurrent ramp |
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sharp ridges and concave troughs
back and forth swash |
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higher SiO2 makes it more viscous
mound near vent, flow slowly
outer crust fractures creating rubble |
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highest silica most viscous
rarely flows
plugs vent |
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| pyroclastic debris deposit |
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| lithified ash with ot without lapili |
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