• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Testing, revise or discard
• Theory
• Testing, revise of discard
• Scientific Model
• Testing, revise or discard

• "the present is the key to the past"- Jame Hutton

• All matter and energy compacted into single dense point
• 13-14 millions years ago, universe began with cosmic "explosion"

Elements are formed during star FORMATION and DESTRUCTION

• NEBULA= space dominated by "dust"
• nebula starts to collpase under its own gracity, stars form in center
• collpase of nebula causes the nebula to spin faster
• faster spin, flattens out into a disk

• Earth = approx 4.53 billion years old
• Accretion of colliding chunks of matter in solar system (attracted by gravity)
• Energy as motion is converted into heat
• addition heat by decay of radioactive elements like uranium
• Heat causes earth to melt and separate into layers of diff. densities (DIFFERENTIATION)

• Mars sized body impacted earth resulting in:
• ejecta of debris into space forming our moon
• speed up the Earth's rotation
• Tilting of Earth's orbital plane to 23 degrees

• Small planet orbit is too close to a larger planet and the planet breaks apart
• Iron-Nickel: from the core
• Stony: from the mantle
• Carbonaceous Chondrite: from the crust

• Crust (continental, oceanic)
• Mantle (upper mantle, lower mantle)
• Core (Liquid outter, solid inner)

• Igneous (solidification of molten lava)
• Sedimentary (fragments of all rock type pressed or cemented together during burial)
• Metamorphic (heat, pressure, and or fluids WITHOUT melting)

• Continents
• Oceans
• Atmosphere

• lighter molten materials rising to the surface due to differentiation and solidified as it cools

• resulted from impact o volatile-rich matter early after Earth was formed
• OR volatile tied up in planetesimals which formed the Earth. Volatiles released lter by volcanism

PROBABLY BOTH

• External heat engine ( solar energy, drives weather and climaatic conditions)
• Internal heat engine (heat energy trapped during planetesimal bombardment and heat generated by radioactive element decay deep within the Earth)

• Crust
• Lithosphere (includes crust and part of upper mantle)
• Asthenosphere (lower part of upper mantle)
• Deep mantle (contains most of Earth's volume)
• Outer core (liquid)
• Inner core (solid)

• Lithosphere is continuous shell broken into 12 large plates
• Ride on asthenosphere
• Most geological activity occurs near plate boundaries

• Wegener's hypothesis of Pangaea
• Continental fit
• Patterns of present day animal life
• Fossil evidence
• related rocks
• ancient climates

• Convection - a process of heat transfer from the interior f the earth to the exterior (hot material is less dense)

• Divergent (move away)
• Convergent (move together)
• Transform (slide past one another)
• Hot Spot (stationary thermal plume burning through a plate)

• TENSION from rifting
• sea floor spreading (new molten material fills gap in rift)
• rift- a crack like valley which allows molten rock to erupt from below

(mid atlantic ridge)

• as hot mantle material rises the drop in pressure results in melting of the rock

• Magnetic field reverses direction on average of half million years

• ocean floor, sulfide minerals

• COMPRESSION
• Subduction occurs (more dense plate sinks)

• naturally Occurring
• Inorganic, no organic carbon
• Crystalline solid
• Specific chemical compound

• ridge push
• slab suction
• slab pull

• Divergent (tension)
• Convergent (compression)
• Transform (shear)

• carbon atom (6 protons) though may have 6 neutrons, 7 neutrons, or 8. All isotopes of carbon

• lost an electron, gains positive charge

• gained an electron, has negative charge

• transfer of electrons
• Weak bond

• Sharing of electrons
• Strong bond

• Color
• Luster
• Streak
• Cleavage
• Fracture
• hardness
• specific gravity
• Crystal habit

• growth of a solid from a gas or liquid

• Lower temp of a liquid below its freezing point (crystallization of a magma forming an igenous rock)
• Evaporites (liquids evaporate from a solution causing minerals to precipitate
• Hydrothermal Fluids (circulation of water through hot rock or near a magma chamber)
• Metamorphism (high heat and pressure, but no melting)

• Beauty (color/luster)
• Transparency
• Brilliance (cutting and polishing)
• Durability (hardness)
• Rarity or perceived rarity

• Covalent bonds
• Polymorph of carbon along with graphite in the mantle
• Brought to surface by kimberlite pipes
• can be found as placer deposits

• bulk of Earth's crust
• Extrusive or Volcanic (magma erupts at the surface and cools rapidly (fine or no crystals, aphanatic, glassy, pyroclastic, vesicular)
• Intrusive or Plutonic (when magma cools underground slowly) (coarse crystals phaneritic or pegmatic)

• Pegmatitic (all very large)
• Phaneritic (all visible, coarse)
• Aphanitic (too tiny to be distinguished)
• Porphyritic (2 sizes of crystals, 2 diff cooling rates)
• Pyroclastic (background)
• Vasicular (bubbly)
• Glassy- (no minerals present)

• Ultramafic (dark colored, lowest silica)
• Mafic
• Intermediate
• Felsic (high silica, light colored)

• Felsic (600-800 celcius)
• Intermediate
• Mafic
• Ultramafic (greater than 1200 celcius)

• Not all minerals crystallize at the same temp

• Large intrusive igneous rock body

• Intrudes parallel to sedimentary bedding, many are horizontal

• Vertical or steeply inclided intrusion which cuts across other rock types

• Mafic (high temp, low viscosity)
• Felsic (low temp, HIGH viscosity)

• gentle, lava, low viscosity, mafic
• occur at hot spots or divergent boundaries

• high in silica (intermediate to felsic)
• high viscosity
• convergent boundaries and continental hot spots

• flood basalts
• mafic lavas
• flat layers
• Columbia River Basalts

• Shield volcanoes
• vent eruption
• primarily mafic lava
• large area, broad and sloping
• Hawaii

• Vent eruptions
• mafic lava and pyroclastic rocks
• steep slopes

• vent eruptions
• primarily mafic lava
• steep slope
• small in size

• composite volcano (stratovolcano)
• vent eruptions
• steep slopes (high viscosity)
• Cascades

• central vent
• extremely large explosive eruption causes the collapse of the summit into an empty magma chamber
• primarily felsic pyroclastic rocks
• Yellowstone NP

• Pahoehoe (ropey)
• Aa (blocky)
• Lava tube
• Pillow lava (underwater)
• Column

• columns
• volcanic bombs

• Felsic/ Intermediate volcanic hazard
• Ash, can have pumice and rock