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| 5 Fundamental Themes of Geograhy |
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Location
Place
Relationships within places
Movement
Regions |
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| The increasing connectivity of all parts of the world as full range of social,cultural,political and economic and environmental process and patterns of change. |
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| The Art and Science of making Maps |
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*First person to use the word “geography”
* Invented a system of latitude and longitude
* First to calculate the tilt of the Earth on its axis
* First to calculate the circumference of the Earth and measure the distance from the Earth to the Sun |
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| Was known of the world’s geography in the Roman Empire in the 2nd century |
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| Was known of the world’s geography in the Roman Empire in the 2nd century |
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| Land survey system that uses physical features of the local geography, along with directions and distances, to define and describe the boundaries of a parcel of land. |
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| Long lot farms or Systems |
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| Long, narrow land divisions, usually lined up along a waterway. |
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| Used straight lines determined by roads or lines of latitude/longitude to distinguish boundaries. |
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| Is the way the curved surface of the Earth is represented on a flat map that preserve area, distance, direction, and shape |
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| Represent the areas on the globe in correct or constant proportion to Earth reality |
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| Area-preserving projections |
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| Show true distances in all directions, but only from one or two central points. Distances between all other points are incorrect, and likely greatly distorted. |
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| Distance-preserving projections |
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| Directions between all points cannot be shown without distortions |
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| Direction-preserving projections |
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| Accurately portray shapes of small areas by preserving correct angular relationships; these maps “look right” and have correct dimensional relationships |
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| Shape-preserving projections |
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(1) All meridians of longitude are equal length; each is one-half the length of the Equator.
(2) All meridians meet at the North and South Poles and are true north-south lines.
(3) All parallels (of latitude) are parallel to the Equator and to each other.
(4) Parallels decrease in length with distance from the Equator
(5) Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles.
(6) The scale on the surface of the globe is everywhere the same in all directions
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Topograhphic map-depict the shape and elevation of the terrain.
Thematic Map-study of spatial patterns and interrelationships of things
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German geophysicist who came up with a lot of great ideas regarding the movement of continents.
Wegener's theory of continental drift stated that continents were once joined together by land bridges that had since sunken as part of the contraction and cooling of the Earth. |
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| Earth was a singular land mass a super continent |
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Fossil and geologic evidence implied that the continents were once interlocking.
* Continents are made of different kinds of rocks with different densities (not just the lightest continents are “floating”).
* Much of the sea floor is volcanic basalt, which floats when suspended in wate |
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| EVIDENCE OF PLATE MOVEMENT |
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| Suggests that the Earth’s landmasses and crust are “floating” on top of the molten mantle, and move up and down over time based on the amount of “stuff” loading them down (ice sheets, mountains) |
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| Areas of land that may have once been covered by ocean water (in a time of lower sea level) and were used by plants and animals to migrate from place to place |
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Divergent Plate Boundaries
This divergent movement causes magma to be upwelled (moved upwards) to fill in the gap that has been formed by the two plates moving away from one another.
Most of the divergent plate boundaries are under the oceans, but there are a couple of places where divergent boundaries are visible at the surface. One example is in Iceland known as a hot spot |
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Convergent Plate Boundaries
Is an actively deforming region where two (or more) tectonic plates or fragments of the Earth's crust move toward one another and collide. As a result of pressure, friction, and plate material melting in the mantle, earthquakes and volcanoes are common near convergent boundaries. When two plates move towards one another, they form either a subduction zone or a continental collision. This depends on the nature of the plates involved. In a subduction zone, the subducting plate, which is normally a plate with oceanic crust, moves beneath the other plate, which can be made of either oceanic or continental crust. During collisions between two continental plates, large mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas are formed. |
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Transform Plate Boundaries
Is a type of fault whose relative motion is predominantly horizontal. Furthermore, transform faults end abruptly and are connected on both ends to other faults, ridges, or subduction zones. While most transform faults are hidden in the deep oceans where they form a series of short zigzags accommodating seafloor spreading, the best-known (and most destructive) are those on land at the margins of tectonic plates.
Probably the most famous transform fault/boundary in the USA is the San Andreas fault, which separates the North American plate from the Pacific plate in California. |
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Formed by the cooling and solidification of molten ro- Magma is molten rock that is underneath the Earth's surface
- Lava is molten rock that is on top of the Earth's surface; the stuff that is erupted from volcanoes
—Intrusive igneous rocks are formed beneath the ground and cool slowly (solidification of magma) —Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the surface (solidification of lava -- magma that has been erupted or extruded by a volcano and is now at the surface)
—* Rate of cooling is responsible for size of crystals in the ro |
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Composed of particles of gravel, sand, silt, and clay that were eroded from already existing rocks
* —Surface waters carry the sediments to the oceans, marshes, lakes, or tidal basins
—* Compression of these materials by other materials causes cementation |
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* Formed from igneous and sedimentary rocks by earth forces that generate heat, pressure or chemical reactions
—* Metamorphic = “changed shape”
—* Internal earth forces may be so great that heat and pressure change the mineral structure of the rock, forming new rocks
— - Shale --> slate
— - Granite --> gneiss
— - Limestone --> marble |
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Movements of rocks from one place to another by:
Weathering-Breakdown and decompostion of rocks
Mechanical -physical disintegration of rocks
Chemical-decompostion of rock by oxidation
Hydrolysis -chemical weahtering with water
Carbonation-Co2 dissovles in water creating cabonic acid
Solution-groundwater and Co2 to decompose rocks |
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Movements of rocks from one place to another by:
Weathering-Breakdown and decompostion of rocks
Mechanical -physical disintegration of rocks
Chemical-decompostion of rock by oxidation
Hydrolysis -chemical weahtering with water
Carbonation-Co2 dissovles in water creating cabonic acid
Solution-groundwater and Co2 to decompose rocks |
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Definition
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Movements of rocks from one place to another by:
Weathering-Breakdown and decompostion of rocks
Mechanical -physical disintegration of rocks
Chemical-decompostion of rock by oxidation
Hydrolysis -chemical weahtering with water
Carbonation-Co2 dissovles in water creating cabonic acid
Solution-groundwater and Co2 to decompose rocks |
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Movements of rocks from one place to another by:
Weathering-Breakdown and decompostion of rocks
Mechanical -physical disintegration of rocks
Chemical-decompostion of rock by oxidation
Hydrolysis -chemical weahtering with water
Carbonation-Co2 dissovles in water creating cabonic acid
Solution-groundwater and Co2 to decompose rocks |
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The result of processes that loosen, dissolve, wear away and remove earth and rock material.
Agents: Water, Wind, Human Action |
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The lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, extends roughly 10 km above the ground, and contains virtually all of Earth’s weather.
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| Description of typical weather conditions in an area or at a place over a longer period of time. |
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| Is a moment’s view of the lower atmosphere made up of elements such as wind, temperature, and precipitation occurring over relatively short periods of time. |
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| Is a moment’s view of the lower atmosphere made up of elements such as wind, temperature, and precipitation occurring over relatively short periods of time. |
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| The Earth rotates around the Sun in an orbit that takes ~365 days to complete, and the Earth's position in reference to the Sun changes during this orbit. |
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| Certain gasses in Earth's atmosphere act to trap the Sun's energy (and energy transmitted from the Earth's surface) and heat the atmosphere and the planet further. Carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane are three of the biggest gasses |
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| Large-scale movement of air, and the means by which thermal energy is distributed on the surface of the Earth. |
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| Is any form of water particles (rain, sleet, snow or hail) that falls from the atmosphere and reaches the Earth’s surface. |
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*Results from rising, heated moisture-laden air
*Typical of summer storms or showers in tropical and continental climates |
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| Convectional Precipitation |
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Warm air is forced to rise because of hills or mountains, which block moisture-laden air from moving
(windward, leeward)
Typical in (you guessed it) mountainous regions |
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| Occurs where warm and cold air masses meet |
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| Cyclonic/Frontal Precipitation |
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| The formation and life cycle of a storm system |
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| Used to categorize the intensity of hurricanes. |
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| The three main ingredients for storm development are |
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Contrasting temperatures,
Contrasting humidity/moisture conditions, 51 Contrasting wind directions. |
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| The gradual increase in the earth’s average surface temperature with significant impacts on the earth’s ecosystems |
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| A significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. |
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| Is a graph which plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere since 1958. It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling. |
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| What are the most influential GHGs in terms of a warming atmosphere |
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Definition
Co2:Enhance by burning fossel fuels, occurs naturally
CH4:Naural Gas and Coal Mining and Agriculture
NOxs:Moter Vehicles and Industry and Fertilizers
CFC,HFC and PFC's:Industrial chemicals and refrigerants,aerosol hair, air conditioning |
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| How do we know climate is changing? |
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Definition
Geologic Record:
River sediments deposits
Lake and Floodplain deposits
Dendrochronolgy -Tree rings
Glacial ice
Marine sediments |
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| How do we know climate is changing? |
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Definition
Geologic Record:
River sediments deposits
Lake and Floodplain deposits
Dendrochronolgy -Tree rings
Glacial ice
Marine sediments |
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The study of how organisms (including humans) interact with each other and with their environments.
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Observations versus modeled results |
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Modeled ressults- predict what might happen in the future based on current emissions amounts these are not turning out like the scientistis predict.
Observation results -better because
Climate change is happening a lot faster in some parts of the world than we can foresee it happening |
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Cumulative global changes (IPCC evidence for global change) |
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Water supply
*Changes in spring melt, precipitation, and evaporation complicated water management
*Severe water shortages (for example, the southwestern US)
*Health/disease
*Increase in transmission by insects
*Most resilient bugs
*Physical geography
*More strong hurricanes
*Sea level rise
*Heat extremes
*Extreme climate variation
*Many more record high temps than record lows |
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| the study of how organisms (including humans) interact with each other and with their environments. |
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| The sun provides energy for the evaporation of fresh and ocean water. The water is held as vapor until the air becomes supersaturated (remember this from our talk about weather), at which time atmospheric moisture condenses, forms clouds, and is returned to the earth’s surface as solid or liquid precipitation to complete the cycle. |
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Why is Ground Water Important
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Groundwater, which is in aquifers below the surface of the Earth, is one of the Nation's most important natural resources. Groundwater is the source of about 33 percent of the water that county and city water departments supply to households and businesses (public supply).
Aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.
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Human Impacts on the Environment
Water |
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*Agriculture probably contributes more to water pollution than any single activity in the United States.
*Fertilizers (eutrophication)
*Biocides
*Animal waste
*Mining
*Municipalities and residences
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| The ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural substances, mainly phosphates, through detergents, fertilizers, or sewage, to an aquatic system. |
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Human Impacts on the Environment
Pollution |
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*Temperature inversions and other unusual weather patterns
*Levels of urbanization, industrialization and adoption of pollution control technologies
*Population density, traffic density
*Residential energy practices
Acid Rain- caused by sulf dixiodes
Photochemical smog-cause by nitrous oxides |
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Human Impacts on the Environment
Pollution |
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Definition
*Temperature inversions and other unusual weather patterns
*Levels of urbanization, industrialization and adoption of pollution control technologies
*Population density, traffic density
*Residential energy practices
Acid Rain- caused by sulf dixiodes
Photochemical smog-cause by nitrous oxides |
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Air polluent caused bynitrogen dioxide reacts with hydrocarbons from automobile exhaust, industry and natural sources to form new compound
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*Forms in the stratosphere (6-15 mi above the Earth’s surface)
*Shields life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun
*Susceptible to destruction by UV rays aided by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs); now predominately outlawed |
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*Formed at ground-level as a poisonous, noxious pollutant
*Harmful to humans and living things |
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| is a unit of measurement of the columnar density of a trace gas in the Earth's atmosphere. It originated, and continues to be widely used, as a measure of total-column ozone, which is dominated by ozone in the stratospheric ozone layer. |
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Human Impacts on the Environment
Imapacts on Landforms |
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Excavation (surface and subsurface)
*Open-pit mining
*Strip mining
*Mountaintop removal
Dumping
*Slag heaps
*Agricultural terraces
Subsidence from subsurface material extraction
*Sinkhole formation |
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| IMPACTS ON PLANTS & ANIMALS |
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In the destruction of their natural habitats, we have deemed some plant and animal species to be threatened, or even endangered
Threaten species- vulnerable to endangerment in the near future
Endangered species-likely to become extinct.
Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a toxic substance at a rate greater than at which the substance is lost or expelled from the organism. |
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Hazardous waste -waste tha pose immediate harm
Low-level radioactive waste- willl degarde in to safe levels in 100 years
High-level radioactive waste- will be radioactive for 10,000 years |
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| What are the main factors contributing to human impacts on ecosystems? |
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I = P * A * T
I = Impact
P = Population
A = Affluence ( econoic standing)
T = Technology
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| Four major global ecosystems |
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The atmosphere (the troposphere) is the lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphe
The lithosphere (soils/dirt/rocks/minerals)
The biosphere (living plants and animals)
The hydrosphere (water, ice). |
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| Four major global ecosystems |
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The atmosphere (the troposphere) is the lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphe
The lithosphere (soils/dirt/rocks/minerals)
The biosphere (living plants and animals)
The hydrosphere (water, ice). |
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Perpetual vs. Potentially renewable resources |
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Definition
Renewable resource subcategories:
perpetually renewable resource is one that is inexhaustible; we'll never run out of its supply
potentially renewable resource is one that can last indefinitely IF its natural replacement rate is not exceeded |
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Perpetual vs. Potentially renewable resources |
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Definition
Renewable resource subcategories:
perpetually renewable resource is one that is inexhaustible; we'll never run out of its supply
potentially renewable resource is one that can last indefinitely IF its natural replacement rate is not exceeded |
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Renewable vs. Nonrenewable resources |
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Renewable resource (or material) is a substance that is replaced or replenished by natural processes (and can be used over and over again).
Nonrenewable resource exists in finite amounts or are generated in nature so slowly that for all practical purposes, its supply is finite. Fortunately, most minerals an be reused even though they cannot be replaced. |
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Variation in soil characteristics
Geology (bedrock)
*Climate (temperature and precipitation, as catalysts to vegetation growth and decomposition)
*Topography (altitude and steepness)
*Biology (plants and animals present that eventually die and decompose)
*Chronology (how long does it take for a layer of rock to weather into a layer of soil?) |
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vegetation
The term vegetation refers to the community of different species of plants growing together in an area and possessing a certain general physical appearance |
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Natural Resources
SOILS MOVEMENT |
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Desertification-Expansion or intensification of areas of degraded or destroyed soil, usually in an already arid or semi-arid region.
*Salinization is the concentration of salts in topsoil as a result of the evaporation of surface water. |
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Natural Resources
Less commonly known method of renewable resource development and energy production |
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Biomass-a resource is any organic material produced by plants, animals or microorganisms that can be burned directly as fuel or converted to liquid or gas (this includes wood, plants, oils from seeds and plants, waste (crop residue, manure)). Biomass can be used for fuel, power production, and products that would otherwise be made from fossil fuels. But here's the biggest takeaway --
biomass energy generation has the potential to greatly reduce GHG emissions. |
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Natural Resources
PROCESS OF BIOMASS |
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Definition
| biodigestion Is a biological process that occurs when organic matter is decomposed by bacteria in the absence of oxygen. The remaining byproduct is called Digestate and is low in odor and rich in nutrients[1]. |
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Energy generated from the movement of water
Is the second-most commonly used form of a renewable energy resourc
Benefits of Hydropower
*Large resource, great capacity, and high potential
*No pollutants emitted through its use
Drawbacks of Hydropower
*Building of dams can cause environmental catastrophes (remember Three Gorges Dam in China?) |
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Definition
Energy generated from the movement of water
Is the second-most commonly used form of a renewable energy resourc
Benefits of Hydropower
*Large resource, great capacity, and high potential
*No pollutants emitted through its use
Drawbacks of Hydropower
*Building of dams can cause environmental catastrophes (remember Three Gorges Dam in China?) |
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electricity and power can be "shipped" to other nearby location
Benefits of Wind Power
*No pollutants emitted through power use or generation
*Relatively little environmental impact/damage
*Relatively cheap (3-6 cents/kilowatt-hour, compared to expensive fossil fuels)
Drawbacks of Wind Power
*Can be an eye-sore (I personally think wind farms look awesome), can be harmful to birds
*Can’t really “store” much energy
*Winds are intermittent |
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Crude Oil-
Natural Gas
Coal |
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*Main source of fuel for the United States
*Refined to produce hydrocarbons and other fuels
*Provides for 40% of commercial energy (excluding wood and other traditional, less conventional fuel sources)
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*Discovery and utilization led to the Industrial Revolution in the United States and Europe
Cost and danger of extraction
*Environmental impacts
*Pollutants (sulfur-rich types o fcarbon dioxide)
*Transportation of a bulky and volatile resource |
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Can be piped, but is difficult to transport long distances without degradation
*Shipments require cooling the gas to liquid form (LNG), which is very explosive |
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| The fracturing of rock by a pressurized liquid forced into the ground by a cased well. |
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| Fracking allows natural gas, petroleum and brine to migrate into a holding well. |
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The study of how poeple earn a living and how livelihood systems vary by area
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Harvesting things from the earth
Farmer |
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Adding value to materials by changing their form or combining them.
construction worker |
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Providing services to the primary and secondary sections of the community
Nursing |
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Services rendared by educated professionals
Teacher |
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| Goods and services made for small base |
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| Goods and services operate within laws of supply and demand |
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| Scales and patterens controlled by authories |
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| Large land with little farming |
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| Extenstive Subsistane Agriculture |
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| Small land area with large yeild output |
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| Intensive Subsistance Agriculture |
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Central Business District
Intensive Residential
Agriculture |
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| Central Business District |
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| High level apartments and low income housing |
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| Middle to high income housing |
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