Term
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Definition
| precious or semiprecious stone that may be used as a jewel when cut and polished |
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Term
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Definition
| a naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and hardness. |
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Term
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Definition
| a naturally formed aggregate of mineral matter constituting a significant part of the Earth's crust. Ex: rubies and sapphires (different 'rocks" but have same mineral composition) |
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Term
| Organic gemstones and examples |
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Definition
| the creation of the gem is associated with living organisms. Ex: amber ivory and pearls |
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Term
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Definition
| mineral, composed of carbon. C atoms are COVALENTLY bonded. Hardest substance on Earth |
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Term
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Definition
| the appearance of the surface of a mineral dependent upon it s reflecting qualities |
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Term
| Two Kinds of Luster and definition |
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Definition
Adamantine- luster of diamonds
Vitreous- luster of quartz (glassy)
is because of chemical structure and covalent bonding. |
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Term
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Definition
| carat, color, clarity, cut |
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Term
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Definition
| 1 carat= .2 grams (used to weigh diamonds against carob seeds) |
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Term
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Definition
largest diamond- 3106 carats (1.37 lb)
Star of Africa |
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Term
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Definition
| colorless, near colorless, faint yellow, very light yellow, light yellow. Grade from best to worst, D-Z. More yellow means more nitrogen, more blue means more boron, green means material around diamond was radioactive. |
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Term
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Definition
| how clear it is (foggy areas or not). Rated with numbers and letters. IF is the most clear? |
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Term
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Definition
| cuts go in and out of style. Are used to make diamond shimmer more. Ex: round, princess, marquise, etc |
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Term
| Diamonds can also be used for |
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Definition
| drills to cut hard things, precision cutting (engraving), windows that cover openings of lasers, watch faces, microchips and computer processors bc they can conduct electricity |
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Term
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Definition
| the first time the word was used as a noun appears in Pliny the Elder's Natural History (Roman Encyclopedia) in the first century B.C. |
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Term
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Definition
| the first producer. Recovered diamonds from alluvial deposits and traded with Europe from 13th to 18th century |
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Term
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Definition
| when they were trading a lot of diamonds, 1730-1780 |
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Term
| First Diamond Discovered in South Africa |
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Definition
| 1866. The Eureka diamond. Started rush in that area |
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Term
| Areas where diamonds were first found |
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Definition
| alluvial deposits between Vaal and Orange Rivers in South Africa |
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Term
| Leaders in World Diamond Production |
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Definition
| Botswana, Russia, and Canada |
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Term
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Definition
| 1871 diamonds were discovered on a farm belonging to D.A. and J.N. De Beer. Eventually the walls collapsed and this lead to new developments in mining. The four deposits found in that area are -Dutoitspan -Bultfontein -De Beers -Kimberley |
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Term
| How does dry digging work? |
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Definition
| Diamonds form under high pressure and temperature deep within the Earth and are transported to the surface via volcanic pipes known as kimberlite |
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Term
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Definition
| removal of mineral-bearing rock from a large surface excavation |
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Term
| Process of open-pit mining |
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Definition
1) Begins with removal of Overburden (sand, gravel, or rock that covers a diamond pipe), and then the overburden is processed for diamonds.
2) Explosives are inserted into holes that are drilled into the pipe to break up rock
3) The loosened material is removed through hydraulic shovels and ore trucks |
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Term
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Definition
| underground mining that involves concrete lined tunnel under a diamond deposit, then collecting the ore through openings in the liner |
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Term
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Definition
1) once open-pit mining reaches a point that it is no longer economically feasible, mining goes underground
2) Composed of vertical shafts and horizontal tunnels. Shafts are drilled into stable rock around the pipe for safety
3) Still use explosives to loosen Kimberlite which falls out of the openings in the liner
4) Miners use heavy equipment to remove material |
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Term
| Environmental Impacts of Mining |
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Definition
1) use up electricity and hydrocarbons (diesel, marine gas, oil, and petrol)
2) A by-product of both electricity and hydrocarbon energy is the release of carbon emissions into the air, such as CO2. Carbon emissions are considered to be a major factor in global warming and climate change as well as smog.
3) waste and recycling (oil, paper, scrap metal, batteries, plastic, and glass)
4) uses a lot of water
5) affects environmental stability |
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Term
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Definition
| nature's need for balance. different plants and animals exist side by side and often humans disturb that |
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Term
| Social Impacts of Mining Diamonds |
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Definition
Blood diamonds are those mined in a war zone and sold to finance an insurgency, the invading army's war efforts, or a warlord's activity
ex: angola, liberia, sierra leone, democratic republic of the congo, and zimbabwe |
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Term
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Definition
| An estimated 4% of the diamonds on the market are blood diamonds. Kimberley process was started in 2003 and is enforced in 81 countries to attempt to limit conflict diamonds from entering the market |
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Term
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Definition
| One of world's newest ones (1998) located in Arctic Tundra and is 186 miles away from nearest supply center (Yellowknife) |
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Term
| Complications with Ekati Mine |
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Definition
| complex ecosystem, aboriginal people use are for hunting and fishing, explosive charge detonation, large scale Earth removal, heavy equipment activity, and water usage. |
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Term
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Definition
| The Canadian government would only issue permits if no species would be endangered, environmental impact assessment and reclamation plans had to be approved, the mining company also promised to provide job opportunities to local residents first, and rigid control of output (make sure not blood diamonds) |
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Term
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Definition
| any process that wears/rearranges landforms. Includes weathering, mass movement, erosion, and deposition. |
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Term
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Definition
| where a more resistant cap rock protects the supporting structure below. Ex: buttes, pinnacles, mesas found in Southwest |
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Term
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Definition
| built up by endogenic processes such as tectonic uplift and volcanic activity that are then altered by exogenic processes. |
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Term
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Definition
| developed when exogenic processes tear landforms (initial landscapes) down, characterized by low relief, gradual change, and stability. |
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Term
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Definition
| open system with highly variable inputs of energy/materials |
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Term
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Definition
| sun provides radiant energy to landscapes that converts into this, driving the hydrologic cycle and other Earth systems |
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Term
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Definition
| sun imparts this on landscapes through mechanical motion of air/water |
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Term
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Definition
| available from atmosphere and various reactions within the crust to affect landscapes. |
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Term
| Potential Energy of Position |
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Definition
| uplift of the land by tectonic processes creates this as land rises above sea level |
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Term
| Dynamic Equilibrium Model |
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Definition
| Landscape formation is a balancing act between uplift and reduction by weathering/erosion. During or following a stabilizing event, a landform sometimes arrives at a geomorphic threshold, or tipping point, where the system lurches to a new operational level |
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Term
| For erosion to move materials... |
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Definition
| forces must overcome friction, inertia, and cohesion among particles |
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Term
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Definition
| curved, inclined surfaces that form the boundaries of landforms. Basic components vary with conditions of rock structure and climate |
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Term
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Definition
| slopes generally feature these, near the top (waxing=increasing) |
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Term
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Definition
| convex surface of a slope that curves downward forming a steep scarp or cliff whose presence indicates an outcrop of resistant rock |
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Term
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Definition
| downslope from the free face. Receives rock fragments and materials from above. Its condition reflects local climate |
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Term
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Definition
| slopes are open systems and seek this among all forces acting on them. It is stable if its strength exceeds the denudation processes and unstable if its materials are weaker than these processes. All controlled by gravity* |
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Term
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Definition
| process that breaks down rock at Earth's surface and slightly below it. It weakens surface rock, making it more susceptible to the pull of gravity |
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Term
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Definition
| on a typical hillside, loose surface material such as gravel, sand, clay, or soil overlies this consolidated, or solid material |
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Term
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Definition
| the upper surface of bed-rock that undergoes weathering creates this. Parent material of soil |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to bed-rock being the material from which weathered regolith and soils develop |
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Term
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Definition
| consolidated or unconsolidated material from which soils develop, ranging from unconsolidated sediments and weathered rock to bedrock |
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Term
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Definition
| fractures or separations in rock that occur without displacement of the rock on either side. Increases the surface area of rock exposed to both physical and chemical weathering. Magnesium weathers fast, different materials have different rates |
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Term
| Climate effects on weathering processes |
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Definition
| Wetter, warmer environments speed up chemical weathering processes; colder environments freeze-thaw cycles cause physical weathering. |
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Term
| Slope orientation and weathering |
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Definition
| slope orientation controls its exposure to the sun, wind, and precipitation. Slopes facing away from the sun's rays tend to be cooler, moister, and more vegetated than slopes in direct sunlight |
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Term
| Subsurface water and weathering |
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Definition
| position of the water table and water movement influence weathering. Glaciers also carve out Earth's surface. Subsurface water especially affects karst areas |
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Term
| Vegetation and weathering |
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Definition
| although vegetative cover can protect rock by shielding it from raindrop impact and providing roots to stabilize soil, it also produces organic acids that contribute to chemical weathering |
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Term
| Micro scale of weathering |
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Definition
| research focuses on a complex relationship between climate and weathering- small but very complicated |
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Term
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Definition
| the critical factor affecting weathering- processes require long periods |
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Term
| Physical/mechanical weathering |
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Definition
| disintegration of rock without any chemical alteration. By breaking up rock, physical weathering produces more surface area on which all weathering may operate |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of physical weathering where water repeatedly freezes and thaws in small openings or cracks in rock, and splits them when it freezes (expands as much as 9%) |
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Term
| Processes and terms associated with frost wedging |
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Definition
Frost action (repeated freezing and thawing of water) --> freeze thaw --> rocks break apart --> frost wedging
Creates joint-block separation (blocks of rock) |
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Term
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Definition
| especially happens in arid climates where heating is intense, evaporation draws moisture to the surface of rocks. Leaves behind previously dissolved minerals as crystals, and as they accumulate and grow they exert a force great enough to separate the rock grains and begin breaking the rock to pieces |
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Term
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Definition
| the process whereby rock peels or slips off in sheets instead of breaking up into grains. Also known as sheeting |
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Term
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Definition
| probably the largest weathering features, in areal extent, on Earth. Many are igneous formations |
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Term
| Pressure-release jointing |
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Definition
| process where rocks crack into joints when large amounts of overlaying material are removed from a granite pluton and the pressure of deep burial is relieved |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical breakdown, always in the presence of water, of the constituent minerals in rock |
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Term
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Definition
| chemical weathering that softens and rounds the sharp edges and corners of jointed rock |
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Term
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Definition
| combination with water- involves little chemical change but does involve a change in structure. Some minerals expand and create a strong mechanical wedging effect that stresses the rock. It forces grains apart in a weathering process |
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Term
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Definition
| decomposition of a chemical compound by reaction with water. Process that breaks down silicate minerals in rocks. |
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Term
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Definition
| when minerals in rocks are changed by hydrolysis and the interlocking crystal network consolidating rock breaks down |
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Term
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Definition
| a type of chemical weathering that occurs when certain metallic elements combine with oxygen to form oxides. Oxidation reactions remove iron from the minerals in a rock and the disruption of the crystal structures makes the rock more susceptible to further chemical weathering and disintegration |
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Term
| Dissolution of Carbonates |
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Definition
| when a mineral dissolves into a solution (like sodium chloride). Water vapor dissolves CO2, yielding precipitation containing carbonic acid. Strong enough to dissolve many minerals especially limestone by carbonation reaction. |
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Term
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Definition
| well developed water ways underground due to chemical weathering in karst environments. found with pitted bumpy surfaces and poor surface drainage |
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Term
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Definition
| 15% of the Earth's land area |
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Term
| Conditions necessary for karst topography |
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Definition
1) limestone formation must contain 80% of more calcium carbonate for dissolution processes to proceed effectively
2) complex patterns of joints in the otherwise impermeable limestone are needed for water to form routes to subsurface drainage channels
3) An aerated zone must exist between ground surface and water table
4) Vegetation cover is needed to supply varying amounts of organic acids that enhance the dissolution process |
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Term
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Definition
| ALso known as dolines. Circular depressions in the ground surface that may reach 600m in depth |
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Term
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Definition
| forms by the slow subsidence of surface materials along joints or at an intersection between joints |
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Term
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Definition
| develops over a period of hours or days and forms when a solution sinkhole collapses through the roof of an underground cavern |
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Term
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Definition
| through continuing dissolution and collapse, sinkholes may coalesce to form this, an elongated depression. May have bogs or ponds in sinkhole depressions and unusual drainage patterns |
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Term
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Definition
| resembles the shape of an egg carton and is formed when weathering occurs in wet climates (like Caribbean region and southeast Asia) where thick beds of limestone are deeply jointed which exposes a large surface area for dissolution processes |
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Term
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Definition
| when dissolution weathering in the tropics leaves isolated resistant limestone blocks that form cones |
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Term
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Definition
| natural underground areas large enough for humans to enter. Generally form just beneath the water table, where the later lowering of water level exposes them to further development. |
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Term
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Definition
| any large cave made by chemical processes. Many form in limestone since it is easily dissolved by carbonation. |
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Term
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Definition
| 200-million-year-old limestone formations deposited when shallow seas covered the area. Found in New Mexico |
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Term
| What are the largest limestone caverns in the world and where are they found |
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Definition
-Mammoth Cave- Kentucky
-Carlsbad Caverns- New Mexico
-Lehman Cave- Nevada |
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Term
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Definition
| formations consisting of mineral deposits inside caverns and occur in various characteristic shapes |
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Term
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Definition
| speleothems formed as water containing dissolved minerals slowly drips from the cave ceiling. Depositional features. |
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Term
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Definition
| dripstones that grow from the ceiling |
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Term
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Definition
| Dripstones that build from the floor |
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Term
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Definition
| exploration and scientific study of caves. Estimated that 90% of caves worldwide still lie undiscovered. More than 90% of known caves have not been biologically surveyed making this a major research frontier. |
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Term
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Definition
| has volcanic peaks, in particular two large dormant ones. The northernmost is called the Nevado del Ruiz. Located in Columbia. Last erupted in 1985 |
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Term
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Definition
| mudflows of volcanic origin. Occurs during eruption and melts everything. Forms a tidal wave |
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Term
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Definition
| downslope movement of a body of material made up of soil, sediment, or rock propelled by the force of gravity. Occur on land or can occur beneath the ocean as submarine landslides. Driving force is gravity. |
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Term
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Definition
| any sudden rapid movement of a cohesive mass of soil, regolith, or bedrock. |
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Term
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Definition
| steepness of slope after it has reached equilibrium. Depends on size and texture of grains. Important things are -weight, size, and shape of surface material, degree to which slope is oversteepened, and the amount and form of moisture available |
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Term
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Definition
| shear strength of the slope material- cohesiveness and internal friction which work against gravity and mass wasting |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Earth and mudflows are 2 different classes. Flow means high fluid content and mudflows have more than earth flows. |
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Term
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Definition
| persistent, gradual mass movement of surface soil is soil creep. Individual soil particles are lifted and disturbed, whether by the expansion of soil as it freezes, cycles of wet and dryness, diurnal temperature variations, or grazing livestock or digging animals. |
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Term
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Definition
| upper layers of soil thaw and become saturated so they begin to move downslope. |
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Term
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Definition
| process of human impact that moves sediment, soil, and rock material. |
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Term
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Definition
| science of water at and below the Earth's surface |
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Term
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Definition
| processes that are related expressly to rivers and streams |
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Term
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Definition
| trunk or main stream of the network of tributaries forming a river system |
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Term
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Definition
| general term for water flowing in a channel and is not related to size |
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Term
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Definition
| aka watershed. Every stream has its own one of these. It is from where they receive their water |
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Term
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Definition
| in any drainage basin water first moves downslope as this. It can be in the form of sheet flow, a thin film over the ground surface or in rills which are small scale grooves in the landscape made by the downslope movement of water. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rills may develop into these and then into stream channels leading to the valley floor |
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Term
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Definition
| high ground that divides one valley from another and directs sheet-flow |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| special class of drainage divides. separate drainage basins that empty into different bodies of water |
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Term
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Definition
| most water is underground and stream drainage leaves the drainage basin by means of evaporation or subsurface gravitational flow |
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Term
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Definition
| system is in some kind of equilibrium and then when instability is reached, a new dynamic happens |
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Term
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Definition
| determined by dividing the total length of all stream channels in the basin by the area of the basin |
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Term
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Definition
| the arrangement of channels in an area |
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Term
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Definition
| most common drainage pattern, treelike |
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Term
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Definition
| characteristic of dipping or folded topography. Blue ridge area |
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Term
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Definition
| results when streams flow off of a central peak or dome, ex volcanic environment |
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Term
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Definition
| associated with steep slopes |
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Term
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Definition
| formed by a faulted and jointed landscape, which directs stream courses in patterns of right-angle turns. |
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Term
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Definition
| associated with glacial activity, no rhyme or reason |
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Term
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Definition
| a pre-existing channel pattern has been imposed upon older underlying rock structures. Drainage pattern may seem discordant with the landscape through which it flows |
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Term
| Energy of stream depends on |
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Definition
-gradient
-base level
-volume of flow (discharge) |
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Term
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Definition
| drop in elevation per unit of distance. Usually measured in meters per kilometer or feet per mile |
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Term
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Definition
| level below which a stream cannot erode |
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Term
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Definition
| sea level, the average level between high and low tides |
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Term
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Definition
| temporary one- may determine the lower limit of a local or regional stream erosion |
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Term
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Definition
| a stream's volume of flow per unit of time. calculated by multiplying channel width, channel depth, and stream velocity. Most rivers have an increase in discharge as you go downstream |
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Term
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Definition
| high potential evapotranspiration rates in arid regions can cause discharge to decrease with distance downstream. Ex: Nile |
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Term
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Definition
| in streams where friction is high, this occurs and mot of the stream's energy is expanded in turbulent eddies |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| flows all year, fed by snowmelt, rainfall, groundwater, or some combination |
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Term
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Definition
| flows only after precipitation events and is not connected to groundwater systems |
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Term
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Definition
| flows for several weeks or months each year and may have some groundwater input |
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Term
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Definition
| graph of stream discharge over time for a specific location. Annual, storm, and show peak flows. |
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Term
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Definition
| the highest discharge that occurs during a precipitation event. Determined by amount location and duration of the rainfall |
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Term
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Definition
| rare or large precipitation event in a desert can fill a stream channel with a torrent. May fill in a few minutes and surge briefly during and after a storm |
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Term
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Definition
| constant reference elevation (datum) where a stream depth is measured since channel beds are often composed of soft sediments that change over a short period of time |
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Term
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Definition
| scientists use these, poles marked with water levels, on the stream bank with a gauge mounted on it to measure stage |
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Term
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Definition
| type of erosive work performed by flowing water alone, a squeeze-and-release action that loosens and lifts rocks. At a maximum in upstream tributaries of a drainage basin, where sediment load is small and flow is turbulent |
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Term
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Definition
| process that erodes stream bed with rock and sediment grinding and carving the stream bed like liquid sandpaper |
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Term
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Definition
| the process whereby streams deepen their channel |
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Term
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Definition
| the process whereby streams lengthen their channels upstream |
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Term
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Definition
| when stream energy is high and a supply of sediment is present, streamflow propels sand, pebbles, gravel, and boulders downstream |
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Term
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Definition
| the material carried by a stream. supply determined by topographic relief, nature of rock and soil through which the stream flows, climate, vegetation, and human activity in a drainage basin |
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Term
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Definition
| material that travels in solution, especially the dissolved chemical compounds derived from minerals, such as limestone or dolomite or from soluble salts. |
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Term
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Definition
| fine-grained clastic particles (bits and pieces of rock) |
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Term
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Definition
| coarser materials that are moved by traction (the rolling or dragging of materials along the streambed, or saltation, a term referring to the way particles may bounce along in short hops and jumps. |
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Term
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Definition
| stream's ability to move particles of a specific size and is function of stream velocity and the energy available to move materials |
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Term
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Definition
| total possible sediment load that a stream can transport and is a function of discharge; thus, a large river has a higher capacity than a small stream |
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Term
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Definition
| when a stream channel erodes |
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Term
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Definition
| if the load exceeds a stream's capacity, sediment accumulates in the stream bed and buds up a channel through deposition |
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Term
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Definition
| when there is excess sediment, a stream might become a maze of inter-connected channels that form this pattern. Commonly occur in glacial environments where coarse sediment is abundant and slopes are steep |
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Term
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Definition
| where channel slope is gradual and streams develop a sinuous (snakelike) form, weaving back and forth across the landscape |
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Term
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Definition
| erosive action forms this on the outside of a meander curve. |
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Term
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Definition
| accumulation of sediment on the inside of a meander bend where the slowest water velocity is. |
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Term
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Definition
| when a former meander gets cut off from the rest of the river. It may gradually fill with organic debris and silt or may again become part of a river when it floods. Example: Carter lake between Nebraska and Iowa (Missouri River) |
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Term
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Definition
| a previously low-energy river flowing through the newly uplifted landscape. It gains energy and actively returns to downcutting |
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Term
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Definition
| associated degradation of a channel can eventually form these, that are deeply incised in the landscape. |
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Term
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Definition
| downcuts at the same rate at which the uplift of Earth occurs maintaining its course |
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Term
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Definition
| when the longitudinal profile of a stream contains an abrupt change in gradient. the point of interruption is called this. The conversion of potential energy in the water at the lip of the falls to concentrated kinetic energy at the base works to eliminate nick point interruption and smooth out the gradient. |
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