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| most extensive world wide coverage, dry soils, lack organic matter, sandy or salty, agriculturally productive if irrigated and fertilized, threat of salt accumulation. |
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| second most productive soil order, maturely developed, associated with diverse climate/vegetation, occur mainly in low and midlattitudes. |
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| soils derived from volcanic ash, high fertility |
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| the least well-developed. No horizons because of lack of time. most are recent surface deposits, difficult to correlate with temperature/precipitations regime, found in semi-arid/arid lands, limited productivity except when recent alluvial deposits. |
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young soils with poorly developed subsurface horizons.
Irregular distribution. found in tundra and mountain areas, include a variety of soils that are newer. |
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| very limited distibution, waterlogged organic soils. Cidic and little oxygen, occur in the Great Lakes region nad Louisiana/Florida |
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mineral rich, dark lots of humus and nutrients. Found in mid latitude grasslands of USA, Pampas of Argentina and Russia.
Most productive of all soils |
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| weatheredand leached, low fertility. Tropical/subtropical rainforest but is found in spotty. Deep "A horizon soil" slash/burn agriculture used by indigenous people to increase soil fertility. |
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| leached and acidic. Infertile, "B horizon soils" found in boreal regions and Florida |
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| weathered and leached soil. Humid subtropical climate, acidic red color degenerated alfisols, low fertility. |
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| clay rich, water absorbant soils with high swell/shrink capacity.widespread. Derives from silicate bearing parent material. inverted conditions. climates fo prominent wet/dry seasons |
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Salinization
Calcification
Laterization |
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| low precipitation and high evaporation rates lead to soil salinization |
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| calcium carbonate accumulates in "B horizons" the brought to surface by grass roots. limited clay formation due to limited chemical weathering |
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| high rain fall and temperature cause chemical weathering and deep leaching |
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| smallest particles in the soil. combo of silica and oxides of aluminum and iron. found only in soil not in parent material |
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| Cohesion. water that remains after gravitational water has drained. Particle are held at the surface by surface tension. principal source of moisture for plants. water can move in all directions. moves from wet areas to drier ones. often moves up when no gravitational water is percolating downwared |
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| remaining volume of water after the gravitational water has drained away. |
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| Effective solvent, dissolving essential soil nutrients and making them available to plant roots. the nutrients are carried down into the soil and redeposited. |
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| As water percolates into the soil it picks up fine particles of mineral matter from the upper layers and carries them downward. |
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| deposition process of particles after the process of eluviation at a lower level |
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| soil texture where non of the three principal spearates dominates the other two. most productive for plants |
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| particles of most soils aggregate into clumps tht determine soil structure. |
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| Measure of a soils capacity ot hold water and air |
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| Cation exchange capapcity |
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Definition
| the higher the CEC the more fertile the soil ex. clay, Humus |
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Definition
o-horizon= loose and partly decayed organic matter
a-horizon = mineral matter mixed with some humus
E- horizon = zone of eluviation adn leaching
b-horizon= accumulation of clay and iron and aluminum
c horizon= partially altered parent material
r horizon= unweathered parent maerial. |
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| Mohorovicic discontinuity (moho) |
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Definition
| significant change in mineral composition at the base of the crust. marks less dense crustal rock from more dense mantle |
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| solid mineral realm of the earth |
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| surface configuration of the land |
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| individual topographic feature ex. beach or mountain or volcano |
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| isoline that connects points of elevation longitudes |
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The present is the key to the past
The same process that happens today happened in the past
James Hutton developed idea |
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a meteor or a volcano could have also altered the land
Charles lyell (19 th century) |
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| Processes that produce land forms : |
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Definition
Volcanism-
Fluvial -running water ex. canyon
Eolian - wind ex. sand dune
Glaciation- glacier movement ex. madderhorn
Weathering - ex. arches NP
Mass Wasting- landslides
Coastal-wave action |
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| Layers of the Earth found through seismic waves |
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Definition
Solid inner core
Liquid outer core
mantle
Crust 5-25 miles thick |
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| More dense then continental crust but not by much |
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Definition
Continental crust
Oceanic crust
Moho boundary
Lithosphere =mantle and upper crust
asthenosphere =partially molten
Lower Mantle |
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| Continental vs. oceanic crust |
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Definition
continental crust is comprised mainly of silica and aluminum(sial)
oceanic crust is comprised mainly of silica |
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Definition
| if an immense weight is added to some portion of earths crust it will sag and if its removed it will bound back overtime. |
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| chemical elements that are usually bonded with one or more other elements to form compounds Compounds are the buildings blocks of rocks |
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Definition
Igneous = Intrusve (cools outside of the earths crust)
extrusive (cools outside of the earths crust)
Sedimentary = layered rocks from pressure water/chemical reactions, contain fossils
Metamorphic= rocks ,due to intense heat dn pressure, change chemically |
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Intrusive (plutonic) ex. granite
Extrusive (volcanic) ex. basalt, Devils tower wyoming |
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material that colects in one place and under pressure and water/chemicals becomes a rock
ex. shale (claybits or small particles) |
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| bunch of rocks that get cemented together to form a big rock |
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Convergent
Divergent
Transform |
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Oceanic-Oceanic
Oceanic-Continental
Continental-Continenttal |
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Definition
magma from the asthenosphere wells up in the opening between plates. produces a line of volcanic vents that spill out basaltic lava onto the ocean floor
plutonic rock-midocean ridge |
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Definition
comprised of north american and eurasia
later formed to pangea |
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West Pacific =6.7 miles deep
ex. indonesia
Sumatra, Australian & India plate
Allution island west of alaska |
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| ex. Calfifornia: juan de fuca plate and the Gorda ridge |
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Oceanic crust diving beneath NA plate.
NA is covering it up slowly and will eventually override it. |
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| Mantle Plumes (Hot Spots) |
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Definition
Account for island chains that are isolated from plate margins
Hawaii
When island sink they become coral reefs/atols |
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Definition
Oceanic-Continental
Alaska down to California were Accreted onto North America
India was accreeted onto Asia |
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Term
| Volcanic Landforms: Extrusive |
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Definition
Shield: Fluid and gases don't build up (not as explosive) gases escape fluid lava
Composite/Strato: gases build (explosive)
Caldera: the opening in a volcano or top indent
Lahar: mass movement of volcanic ash and other debris |
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| Volcanic Landforms: Intrusive |
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Definition
Magma cools very slowly
Batholith: Underground chamber of molten material that has solidified. (lrg. land form intrusive) ex. granite mountain rangers such as sierra Nevada mountains |
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| Volcanic landforms: Intrusive II |
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Definition
Batholith
Stock: smaller then a Batholith < 40sq miles
Laccolith: melts through layers ;pushes up remaining layers
Dike: exposed wall of igneous rock that cooled intrusively then became exposed
Sills: melt through layers of rock spread laterally |
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Definition
| deformation of Earths crust |
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Term
| Folding: result of compressive forces |
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Definition
Down Fold =syncline
Up fold inside=Anticline
Up fold outside=Monocline
fold that oversteepeens and reverses = oversteepened fold |
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Term
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Definition
Bedrock that is forcefully broken or displaced
Occurs along zones of weakness in earth's crust
Common in coastal areas
Slippage can be slow movement or very sudden it could slip a few inches or several feet. |
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Term
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Definition
Normal: prominent fault scarp. Up throw block and Down throw block are moving away from each other. tension stress
Reverse:Up throw block(right) and down throw block(left) are converging. Associated w/landslides weathering smooths it out. compression stress
Strike Up: moving forward ans backward side by side like two cars on the road. shear stress. compression force
Thrust:Up throw block is overriding downthrow rock. |
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| a syncline/valley with faults on each side of it |
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| Fault lines that errode to look like mountain ranges |
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Definition
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| Fault on one side of amountain range |
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Definition
Fault block Mountain range
Fo up to a summit then drop rapildly toward the valley |
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| mechanical fragmentation of rocks from stress |
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Term
| Physical weathering types |
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Definition
Frost Wedging-
Thermal weathering-only affects surface
wetting and drying (hydration)
unloading (exfoliation)
Salt-wedging
Biological weathering |
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Term
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Definition
| Freezing and thawing water gets in cracks freezes and widens the crack. |
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| salt crystallizes out of solution as water evaporates. capillary actions draws water upward in dry places and this process prys the rock apart grain by grain. |
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| curved layers peel off bedrock |
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decomposition of rocks by the chemical alterations fo there minerals.
types: hydrolysis, oxidation, and dissolution(karst) |
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| chemical reaction between water and another substince to produce a compound that is softer or weaker than the original one |
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| occurs when oxegen dissolved in water combines with minerals (metallic elements in rock) new products are formed ( iron oxide or rust) |
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| dissolving of limestone by ground water, which is a weak carbonic acid. produces land forms such as sinkholes, speleotherms, haystack hills, and tufa cones |
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Definition
geysers
hotsprings
fumaroles
tufa cones |
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Term
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Definition
icelandic word ex. old faithful
heats rocks which heat ground water (higher than boiling point but doesn’t boil because its under pressure. rises to a boiling temp w/pressure air bubbles come up and pushes water up and the water deep down is turned to steam which comes up , due to pressure change) ex. iceland and Yellowstone |
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| similare to a geyser but not under pressure so it doesnt explode |
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| Fumaroles = steam is regularly emitted through and opening |
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Definition
| steam is regularly emitted through an opening |
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Definition
| the down slop transfer of material due to gravity. |
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Term
| Most important factors influencing slope failures are |
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Definition
saturation of slope material with water
earthquakes
freezing and thawing |
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Term
| Solifluction= occurs in cold regions or high-latitudes with slope. soil freezes into permafrost the top layer thaws out and migrates down hill. slips over frozen soil. |
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Definition
| occurs in cold regions or high-latitudes with slope. soil freezes into permafrost the top layer thaws out and migrates down hill. slips over frozen soil. |
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| involves slope failure where the rock moves downwared and at the samt time rotates outward along a vurved slide plane that concave shape. |
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| gradual downhill movement of soil. |
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top layer of rock is dolestone and below that is queen annes shale.
giant boulders are being shoved out leaving potholes caused by the swirling waters at the bed of the river.
lake iraquo receded and the falls dropped faster and higher
metropolis head in niagra falls and use it as a power source
Industrial revolution - wanted to change the falls
on the american side they drained the falls to remove rocks and make it look pretty. |
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| those that involve running water , unchanneled downslope movement of surface water. |
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| occurs when there is sand and gravel so it becomes a broad shallow stream bed. |
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| veins or a leafless tree the streams get bigger or large as they travel |
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| cross at large streams or right angles |
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erosional
depostional
sediment occurs on the inside of the meander natural levees rom on the outside which is where most erosions occurs |
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Definition
as it flow along it wants to go straight but is a curved stream so it just slowly erodes one bank and fills another side leaving a oxbo lake which then fills with sand and becomes a swamp then a depression. the river continues to keep moving forming another meander then repeating the cycle.
bear river is an example |
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| River flood plains are sometimes pushed up because of tectonic forces then there is a steeper grade and the river starts floating faster and eroding faster. |
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| streams flow from a concentric uplift susch as avolcano. |
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kick point example
a. waterfall (fast corrosive water
b. errodes less resistant strata
c. rocks fall off to the base of river
locaationof kick pint has migrated up stream. |
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Definition
| on flat terrain because on slopes soil will errode and deposit on flat areas below |
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Definition
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| sand transmits and clay holds water |
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Definition
| negative charged particles are small and attract positively charged elements like calcium moving down from rain water |
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| common rock forming minerals |
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Definition
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Definition
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midocean ridges are formed by currents of magma rising up from the mantle; creating a new basaltic ocean floor that spreaad awary laterally from the ridge. =new crust formation
theory by: Harry Hess and Robert dietz
explained continental drift theory.
proof : paleomagnetism and ocean floor cores |
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Definition
| steepness and speed of river |
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| flows parrallel to another stream |
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| accumulation of rocks at the base of a cliff. |
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| why is Niagra falls retreating slower? |
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Definition
| Remedial work has been done to preserve the falls and the volume of water has been reduced by diversion for hydroelectric power. |
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