Term
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Definition
| Where two genotypes are dominant and are expressed as a codominant phenotype such as AB blood type. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a certain combination of alleles cause fatality. (Usually homozygous dominant) |
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Term
| What are the four categories of chromosomes? |
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Definition
Metacentric - longest
Submetacentric - short arms
Acrocentric - The ones with satellites
Telocentric - one sided |
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Term
| What are 5 stages in meiosis prophase? |
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Definition
Leptotene
Zygotene
Pachytene
Diplotene
Diakinesis |
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Term
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Definition
| Cells with mass produced and replicated DNA to produce super condensed chromosomes with multiple copies. |
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Term
| What occurs in meiosis prophase? |
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Definition
| Two Chromosomal pairs come together to cross over and then become two genetically different and unique sister chromatids |
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Term
| How many genetically different offspring can two humans procreate together with 23 chromosomes each? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Thymine + Cytosine + Uracil |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
TAG, TGA, TAA.
In RNA replace the T with a U |
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Term
| What at the start of a DNA strand ready for DNA replication? |
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Definition
| A UTR. The promoter region that is where the DNA/RNA polymerase will attach to and then when it meets the AUG it will being to replicate |
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Term
| Why do we have Introns and Prokaryotes don't? |
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Definition
We have them because of the alternative splicing and we have space for them. Alternative splicing is the act of including useful introns when needed.
Prokaryotes don't have space. |
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Term
| What is Tay Sachs disease? |
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Definition
| Caused by two recessive alleles encoding for a harmful enzyme and accumulation of a toxic lipid GM2. Symptoms include blindness, deafness, paralysis and life expectancy of 3-4 years. |
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Term
| What is Haploinsufficiency? |
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Definition
| When the exact level of gene product is required for normal metabolism and if any recessive gene is involved then the gene product level is not met and consequences are onset. |
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Term
| What is Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome? |
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Definition
| Arises from haploinsufficiency and effects 1 in 300,000 and will lead to symptoms of malformed heart, beaked nose and mental retardation. |
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Term
| Dominant negative mutations? |
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Definition
| When a negative genotype is present heterozygously or homozygously it stops the function of any normal protein even if there is a lot of normal protein present as the mutant phenotype is dominant. |
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Term
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Definition
| Affects 1 type of collagen and is caused by dominant negative mutations. it effects the quality of the collagen produced as it contains larger protein units which weaken its structure. |
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Term
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Definition
| Dwarfism. When a single amino acid change causes a negative regulator in bone growth and the cartilage conversion to bone is effect causing faulty bone growth. |
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Term
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Definition
| When the effect of one gene is hidden by the effects of another gene. Can be by blocking a pathway in which the other genes protein would have been effective or by jucstblocking its effects. |
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Term
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Definition
| When the Dominant allele is responsible, for the epistasis of hiding the effects of another gene. |
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Term
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Definition
| When a recessive homozygous pair of alleles will hide the effect of another gene. |
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Term
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Definition
| Long complicated epistasis of 16 genes that all code for different melanin. |
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Term
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Definition
| The probability that an individual expresses a certain genotype phenotypically. They either will or they won't. |
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Term
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Definition
| Is the degree of phenotypic change when a set of individuals all display a certain genotype. |
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Term
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Definition
When a cross occurs of two mutant genotypes and results in a wild type heterozygous genotype.
Can occur two diploid to a diploid or two haploid genotypes to one diploid genotype. |
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Term
| What disease is expressivity fairly present in? |
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Definition
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Term
| What causes Huntington's disease? |
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Definition
| More than 36 repeats of the CAG codon which causes mutations in the Huntingtin protein so it becomes misfolded and toxic. |
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Term
| What is the MedJ modifier effect? |
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Definition
| The mutation means that a deletion of 4bp of the Scn8a gene which is caused by effected RNA splicing. |
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Term
| Three ideas that evolution is based on? |
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Definition
| Variation, Competition and Inheritance |
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Term
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Definition
| When two or more allelic types exist within a population. They appear everywhere and even sex is a polymorphism. |
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Term
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Definition
| They are the different variant of the same enzyme that are coded for by different alleles on the same locus. |
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Term
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Definition
| They probability that an individual is heterozygous at a random enzyme locus. |
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Term
| What is southern blotting? |
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Definition
| The method is used to find a specific DNA sequence in a sample strand of DNA. Uses electrophoresis and probe fragment detection. |
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Term
| What is the unit for nucleotide diversity? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| A set of genetic determinants located on a single chromosome. |
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Term
| What is the Hardy-Weinberg principal? |
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Definition
That in a steady and normal population, the frequencies of the certain genotypes will be p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.
Where p = A and q = a and 1 is the full population. |
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Term
| What does the Hardy-Weinberg principal rely on in a population? |
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Definition
Random mating
No selection
No mutation
Infinite population size |
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Term
| What is the Wahlund effect. |
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Definition
| This occurs when a lack of random mating occurs due to either population division or too small a population and there tends to be an increase in homozygote frequency. |
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Term
| Development of resistance, what are the usual mechanisms? |
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Definition
The subject will change its uptake of particular proteins
Increases the production of the enzyme that is able to resist/breakdown.
Target site changes |
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Term
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Definition
Mullerian mimicry - When a group of unpalatable prey organisms all look the same for a mutual protection as they all look the same and unpalatable.
Batesian mimicry - When a mimic species tends to look close to and mimic a different species which is distasteful, |
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Term
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Definition
| This is about the traits that are coded for by various genes that all have different degrees of change that the effects of a specific gene cannot be seen as it changes with all the other genes coding for the same trait. Example of this is height. |
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Term
| What is the equation for Variance of the phenotype displayed by an organism? |
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Definition
Vp = Vg + Ve
Phenotypic variance is created due to a combination of the genotypic variance and the variance of the environment for each individual. |
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Term
| How to work out heritability in the broad sense? |
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Definition
| H2 = Genetic variance/Phenotypic variance |
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Term
| How to work out the heritability in the narrower sense? |
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Definition
| h2 = Additive variance/Phenotypic variance |
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Term
| The additive variance? How to work it out? |
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Definition
Genetic variation attributed to average differences between different allelic characters.
To work it out you times the percentage of the population that has the certain genotype by how far away that genotypes average value is away from the entire populations mean value. |
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Term
| The dominance variance? How to work it out? |
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Definition
Variance due to heterozygotes not being exact midpoints of homozygote parents.
VD = VG - VA |
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Term
| What does S stand for in genetics? |
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Definition
| This is the difference between the mean of the population and the mean of the selected parent. It is involved in selective breeding. |
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Term
| What does R stand for in genetics? |
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Definition
R = h2*S
This is the breeders equation and it is to find the difference between the mean of the offspring population and the mean of the parent population and this is what breeders will look for in different characteristics as this is what you would want to optimise in whatever field you are in. |
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Term
| What is a transitional substitution? |
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Definition
| When are base is substituted for its same class of base. (Pyramidine being replaced by another pyramidine) |
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Term
| What is a transversional substitution? |
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Definition
| When a base is substituted for a base that is not in its class. (Pyramidine being replaced by a purine or visa versa) |
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Term
| What is the geological species concept? |
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Definition
A species is a set of fossils that has a similar set of characteristics that is distance from another set.
Problems: Gradual change may not be seen in the same species even though it occurred and derail change in the same species may appear to be speciation even though it never occurred. |
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Term
| What is the ecological species concept? |
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Definition
A species is a set of organisms exploiting an occupying a single niche.
Problems: Not evolutionarily appropriate |
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Term
| What is the biological species concept? |
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Definition
A species is a group of interbreeding natural populations that is reproductively isolate form other groups
Problems: Ring species |
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Term
| What are the three types of speciation? |
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Definition
| Allopatric (Geographical isolation occurs due to barriers), Parapatric (Living environmental isolation such as night and day), Sympatric (Reproductive isolation, isolation of a single population from the greater population often caused by differentiation of niches) |
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Term
| What is a sister species? |
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Definition
| It is when a species has recently spectated it is said that the original species and the new species are sister species. |
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Term
| What is a hybrid zone in speciation? |
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Definition
| It is the area that two closely related organisms are occupying that are otherwise geographically isolated. Will be in the middle of the two isolated regions. |
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Term
| What is an adaptive radiation? |
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Definition
| When a species/organisms diversify rapidly into a multitude of new forms to occupy a multitude of new niches. Very quick and wide speciation. |
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Term
| What are the disadvantages of sex? |
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Definition
Males contribute minimal to reproduction as if there was asexual reproduction, a female could produce twice as many fertile female offspring.
Recombination will destroy favourable genesis a lot of gametes.
Not all genes will be passed on as half or from each parent therefore could be loss of helpful genes. |
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Term
| What are the advantages of sex? |
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Definition
Recombination will increase the rate of evolution.
More gene combinations, the higher the chance of a favourable combination.
The recombination may lead to loss of many harmful mutations at once.
Will produce rare combinations that can flourish as common types suffer. |
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Term
| What is Muller's Ratchet? |
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Definition
| In genetics, if an organism is asexual, it is the process that when a harmful mutation occurs, the mutation WILL be passed on and the new ones may occur, can not be lost. |
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Term
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Definition
The reproduction by the fusion of two dissimilar gametes.
Sperm and an egg is anisogamy whereas if they looked the same it would isogamy. |
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Term
| What is intrasexual selection? |
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Definition
| It is the process of competition between members of the same sex in a species such as rutting of male deer. |
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Term
| What is intersexual selection? |
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Definition
| This is the process of a male or a female actually picking a specific mate. |
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Term
| What is batemans principle? |
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Definition
| It is the idea that because maybe one sex will invest more into mating than another, it loses more though mating therefore it is more valuable as it has more percentage to offer therefore the other sex will compete more for it. |
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Term
| What is fishers runaway effect? |
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Definition
| The way that a trait is preferred such as a long tail by females. This trait is taken heavily into account when looking for a mate and therefore as the generations go past more long tail genes are in the mix spot tails get longer until they impede survival. E.g. peacock. |
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Term
| What is Zahavis handicap principle? |
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Definition
| It is the balance of the sexually selected trait that is advantageous in mating but will however prove as a fitness handicap as it may impede the feeding or hunting in life |
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Term
| What is the good genes model? |
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Definition
| The thought process in inheritance and sexual selection that an animal is not picking the mate due to just long tails or something else but rather for what the trait represents such as fitness and health to be able to preserve this trait |
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Term
| What is the Immunocompetence handicap theory? |
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Definition
| It is the thought that some sexually selected traits will come at the cost of immune function. |
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Term
|
Definition
Major Histocombatibility Complex.
This is a cluster of genes that present peptides to the immune system which can contribute to disease resistance but it also will contribute to the body odour of the organism.
Some animals are able to detect this body odour as an indication of a good mate. |
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Term
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Definition
| Altruism is the disinterest in self concern for the benefit of others, be that in pretection, feeding or giving space |
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Term
| What is the geological species concept? |
|
Definition
A species is a set of fossils that has a similar set of characteristics that is distance from another set.
Problems: Gradual change may not be seen in the same species even though it occurred and derail change in the same species may appear to be speciation even though it never occurred. |
|
|
Term
| What is the ecological species concept? |
|
Definition
A species is a set of organisms exploiting an occupying a single niche.
Problems: Not evolutionarily appropriate |
|
|
Term
| What is the biological species concept? |
|
Definition
A species is a group of interbreeding natural populations that is reproductively isolate form other groups
Problems: Ring species |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of speciation? |
|
Definition
| Allopatric (Geographical isolation occurs due to barriers), Parapatric (Living environmental isolation such as night and day), Sympatric (Reproductive isolation, isolation of a single population from the greater population often caused by differentiation of niches) |
|
|
Term
| What is a sister species? |
|
Definition
| It is when a species has recently spectated it is said that the original species and the new species are sister species. |
|
|
Term
| What is a hybrid zone in speciation? |
|
Definition
| It is the area that two closely related organisms are occupying that are otherwise geographically isolated. Will be in the middle of the two isolated regions. |
|
|
Term
| What is an adaptive radiation? |
|
Definition
| When a species/organisms diversify rapidly into a multitude of new forms to occupy a multitude of new niches. Very quick and wide speciation. |
|
|
Term
| What are the disadvantages of sex? |
|
Definition
Males contribute minimal to reproduction as if there was asexual reproduction, a female could produce twice as many fertile female offspring.
Recombination will destroy favourable genesis a lot of gametes.
Not all genes will be passed on as half or from each parent therefore could be loss of helpful genes. |
|
|
Term
| What are the advantages of sex? |
|
Definition
Recombination will increase the rate of evolution.
More gene combinations, the higher the chance of a favourable combination.
The recombination may lead to loss of many harmful mutations at once.
Will produce rare combinations that can flourish as common types suffer. |
|
|
Term
| What is Muller's Ratchet? |
|
Definition
| In genetics, if an organism is asexual, it is the process that when a harmful mutation occurs, the mutation WILL be passed on and the new ones may occur, can not be lost. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The reproduction by the fusion of two dissimilar gametes.
Sperm and an egg is anisogamy whereas if they looked the same it would isogamy. |
|
|
Term
| What is intrasexual selection? |
|
Definition
| It is the process of competition between members of the same sex in a species such as rutting of male deer. |
|
|
Term
| What is intersexual selection? |
|
Definition
| This is the process of a male or a female actually picking a specific mate. |
|
|
Term
| What is batemans principle? |
|
Definition
| It is the idea that because maybe one sex will invest more into mating than another, it loses more though mating therefore it is more valuable as it has more percentage to offer therefore the other sex will compete more for it. |
|
|
Term
| What is fishers runaway effect? |
|
Definition
| The way that a trait is preferred such as a long tail by females. This trait is taken heavily into account when looking for a mate and therefore as the generations go past more long tail genes are in the mix spot tails get longer until they impede survival. E.g. peacock. |
|
|
Term
| What is Zahavis handicap principle? |
|
Definition
| It is the balance of the sexually selected trait that is advantageous in mating but will however prove as a fitness handicap as it may impede the feeding or hunting in life |
|
|
Term
| What is the good genes model? |
|
Definition
| The thought process in inheritance and sexual selection that an animal is not picking the mate due to just long tails or something else but rather for what the trait represents such as fitness and health to be able to preserve this trait |
|
|
Term
| What is the Immunocompetence handicap theory? |
|
Definition
| It is the thought that some sexually selected traits will come at the cost of immune function. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Major Histocombatibility Complex.
This is a cluster of genes that present peptides to the immune system which can contribute to disease resistance but it also will contribute to the body odour of the organism.
Some animals are able to detect this body odour as an indication of a good mate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Altruism is the sacrifice of your own wellbeing for the benefit of others. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
rB - C > 0
This shows that it is beneficial for a individual to help out.
r = The relatedness being donor and recipient
B = the benefit that the donor will receive
C = the cost to the donor if altruistic act is done |
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Term
|
Definition
Reproduction division based of labour based on castes.
Societies based on altruism and different classes of species. Ants and wasps live like this. |
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Term
| What are the three animal visual defences? |
|
Definition
Aposematism - warning colour
Crypsis - Camouflage
Mimicry |
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Term
| What are the two types of selection? |
|
Definition
r selection. This rapid rate of reproduction
K selection. This is the ability to reproduce at high population densities but with fewer offspring |
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Term
|
Definition
| The ability to reproduce all your possible reproduction yield at just one point in your life and achieving full reproduction at one stage. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The ability to mature to a stage of reproduction very quickly |
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Term
|
Definition
| The ability to reproduce at multiple stages in life |
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Term
| What are the two types of life cycle? |
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Definition
Annual (Where an organism will have a shorter lifespan and will reproduce all at once and will often die during the winter months and then the population will grow and become active in water weather)
Perennials (Long lifespan, displays iteroparity with overlapping generations) |
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Term
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Definition
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