Term
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Definition
single cell organism
-genetic material is in close contact with other components of the cell
-genes are generally on a single, circular chromosome
-no nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
has a compartmentalized cell structure having components bounded by intracellular membranes (may be single cell or multicellular)
-has nuclear envelope
-DNA is closely associated with histones to form tightly packed chromosomes
-DNA must separate from the histones before the genetic information in the DNA can be accessed
-genes are located on multiple, usually linear chromosomes
-a few genes are located on circular DNA molecules, as in mitochondria and chloroplasts
-no special significance between the complexity of an organism and its number of chromosomes per cell
-two sets of chromosomes (one from mom and one from dad), same set of genetic information from each parent
-has nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
true bacteria
-do not possess histones
-copying and reading of DNA are simpler |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| 3 major groups of organisms |
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Definition
eubacteria
archaea
eukaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
| surrounds genetic material to form a nucleus and separates the DNA from the other cellular contents |
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Term
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Definition
| limit the accessibility of enzymes and other proteins that copy and read the DNA, but they enable DNA to fit into the nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
can reproduce only within host cells
-they evolved after cells evolved; evolved from hosts rather than other viruses |
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Term
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Definition
1) genetic information must be copied
2) copies of genetic information must be separated from eachother
3) the cell must divide |
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Term
| prokaryotic cell reproduction |
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Definition
| replication usually begins at a specific place on the bacterial chromosome (the origin of replication) |
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Term
| eukaryotic cell reproduction |
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Definition
| chromosomes are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope |
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Term
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Definition
highly organized internal scaffolding in the nucleus
-consists of a network of protein fibers that maintain spatial realations among the nuclear components, take part in DNA replication, the expression of genes, and the modification of gene products before they leave the nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| each copy of a characteristic |
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Term
| eukaryotic chromosome structure |
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Definition
linear
-highly folded and condensed
-DNA is coiled and tightly packed around histone proteins, forming a rod shaped chromosome
-kinetochore (protein complex) assembles on centromere
-spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochore |
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Term
| 3 essential elements of a chromosome |
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Definition
1) centromere
2) pair of telomeres
3) origins of replication |
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Term
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Definition
| attachment point for spindle microtubles |
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Term
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Definition
| the filaments responsible for moving chromosomes during cell division |
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Term
| chromosome classifications |
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Definition
1) metacentric [centromere in center]
2) submetacentric [centromere closer to top]
3) acrocentric [centromere nearly all the way at top]
4) telocentric [centromere at the very top] |
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Term
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Definition
the natural ends/tips of a linear chromosome
-stabilize the chromosome ends
-limit cell division[?]
-play important roles in aging and cancer[?] |
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Term
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Definition
| sites where DNA synthesis begin |
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Term
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Definition
| two initially identical copies held together at the centromere |
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Term
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Definition
| key transition points that regulate progression through the cell cycle |
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Term
| 2 major cell cycle phases |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the period between cell divisions, in which the cell grows, develops, and prepares for cell division |
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Term
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Definition
the period of active vell division
-mitosis
-cytokinesis |
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Term
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Definition
| cytoplasm divides; cell wall forms in plant cells |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| growth and development of cell [10 hours] |
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Term
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Definition
| makes sure all of the enzymes necessary for replication of DNA are there |
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Term
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Definition
| stable, nondividing period of variable length |
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Term
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Definition
| synthesis of DNA [9 hours] |
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Term
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Definition
| preparation for division [4 hours] |
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Term
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Definition
| makes sure that DNA is not damaged |
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Term
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Definition
| sister chromatids separate and the cell undergoes division ( continuous process) |
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Term
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Definition
1) prophase
2) prometaphase
3) metaphase
4) anaphase
5) telophase |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosomes condense and mitotic spindle forms |
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Term
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Definition
| organized array of microtubules that move the chromosomes in mitosis |
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Term
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Definition
| nuclear envelope disintegrates, and spindle microtubles anchor to kinetochores |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosomes align on the spindle-assembly checkpoint |
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Term
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Definition
| sister chromatids separate, becoming individual chromosomes that migrate toward spindle poles |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosomes arrive at spindle poles, the nuclear envelope re-forms, and the condensed chromosomes relax |
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Term
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Definition
1) prophase I
2) metaphase I
3) anaphase I
4) telophase I
5) cytokinesis |
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Term
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Definition
-chromosomes condense
-homologous chromosomes synapse
-crossing over takes place
-nuclear envelope breaks down
-mitotic spindle forms |
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Term
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Definition
| homologous pairs of chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate |
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Term
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Definition
| the two chromosomes (each with two chromatids) of each homologous pair separate and move toward opposite poles |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles |
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Term
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Definition
| the cytoplasm divides to produce two cells, each having half the original number of chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| two haploid gametes fuse and restore chromosome number to its original diploid value |
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Term
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Definition
| a very close pairing association |
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Term
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Definition
| each homologous pair of synapsed chromosomes consisting of 4 chromatids |
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Term
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Definition
| homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information |
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Term
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Definition
| creating new combinations of alleles on a chromatid |
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Term
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Definition
1) prophase II
2) metaphase II
3) anaphase II
4) telophase II
5) cytokinesis |
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Term
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Definition
-chromosomes condense
-spindle forms
-nuclear envelope disintegrates
[only in cells in which the spindle has broken down, chromosomes have relaxed, and the nuclear envelope has re-formed in telophase I. Other types of cells proceed directly to metaphase II after cytokinesis] |
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Term
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Definition
| individual chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate |
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Term
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Definition
| sister chromatids separate and move as idnividual chromosomes toward the spindle poles |
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Term
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Definition
| chromosomes arrive at the spindle poles; the spindle breaks down and a nuclear envelope re-forms |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| production of gametes in a male (in testes) |
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Term
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Definition
| in prophase I: diploid cell |
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Term
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Definition
during meoisis I: two haploid cells
-each produce two haploidd spermatids |
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Term
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Definition
| production of gametes in a female (in ovaries) |
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Term
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Definition
| when an oogonia enters prophase I |
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Term
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Definition
| most of the cytoplasm is allocated in this haploid cell |
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Term
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Definition
| contains half of the chromosomes but only a small part of the cytoplasm |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| an inherited fator that determines a characteristic |
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Term
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Definition
| those between parents that differed in a single characteristic |
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Term
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Definition
| first generation of a cross |
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Term
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Definition
| the offspring from the parents in the P generation |
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Term
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Definition
| in one cross, pollen (male gamete) was taken from a plant with round seeds and, in its reciprocal cross, pollen was taken from the plant with the wrinkled seeds |
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Term
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Definition
| F1 seeds cultivated the plants that germinated from them, and allowed the plants to self-fertilize |
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Term
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Definition
| (Mendel's first law) states that each individual diploid organism possesses two alleles for any particular characteristic |
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Term
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Definition
| when two different alleles are present in a genotype, only the trait encoded by one of them - the "dominant" allele - is observed in the phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
| cross between an F1 genotype and either of the parental genotypes |
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Term
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Definition
the probability of two or more independent events occuring together is calculated by multiplying their independent probabilities
- key indicator: and |
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Term
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Definition
the probability of any one of two or more mutually exclusive events is calculated by adding the probabilities of these events
-key words: either, or |
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Term
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Definition
| reveals the genotype of the first individual |
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Term
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Definition
when the heterozgote has a phenotype intermediate between the phenotypes of the two homozygotes
-ex: snap dragon flowers; eggplants |
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Term
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Definition
represented with a +
-allows more than one phenotype to be exhibited |
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Term
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Definition
| a cross of something differing in two characteristics |
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Term
| principle of independent assortment |
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Definition
| (Mendel's second law) alleles at different loci separate independently of one another |
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Term
| goodness-of-fit chi-square test |
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Definition
x2 = ∑ ((observed - expected)2/(expected))
-provides information about how well the observed values fit exptected values |
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Term
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Definition
| pictorial representation of a family history (family tree that outlines characteristic inheritance) |
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Term
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Definition
| person from whom the pedigree isinitiated and is usually designated by and arrow |
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Term
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Definition
| mating between closely related people |
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Term
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Definition
nonsex chromosomes
-same for both male and female |
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Term
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Definition
| males (produce two different types of gametes with respect to sex chromosomes) |
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Term
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Definition
| females (produce gametes that are all the same with respect to sex chromosomes) |
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Term
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Definition
| small region of the X and Y chromosomes that contains homologous gene sequences |
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Term
| genetic sex determination |
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Definition
| genotype at one or more loci determine the sex of an individual plant or protozoan |
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Term
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Definition
| sex-determining system in which sexual phenotype is controlled by a balance between genes on the X chromosome and genes on the autosomes |
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Term
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Definition
female (XO)
-1/3,000 females
-short
-low hairline
-broad chest
-folds of skin on the neck
-sterile |
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Term
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Definition
male (XXY, XXXY, XXXXY, XXYY)
-1/1,000
-small testes
-reduced pubic hair
-reduced facial hair
-taller than normal
-sterile |
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Term
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Definition
female (XXX)
-1/1,000
-tall
-thin
-few are sterile
-slightly greater risk of mental retardation (increases with more X; can have XXXX, XXXXX) |
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Term
| sex determining region Y (SRY) gene |
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Definition
| male determining gene in humans |
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Term
| sex-linked characteristics |
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Definition
| characteristics determined by genes located on the sex chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| genes on the X chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| genes on the Y chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
possess a single allele at a locus
-ex: males (XY) possess a single X chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| equalizes the amount of protein produced by X-linked genes in the two sexes |
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Term
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Definition
| darkly staining structure |
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Term
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Definition
| Barr body was an inactive X chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| the genotype does not always produce the expected phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
| the percentage of individuals having a particular genotype that express the expected phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
| the degree to which a character is expressed |
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Term
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Definition
| causes death at an early stage of development - often before birth - and so some genotypes may not appear among the progeny (typically 2:1 ratio) |
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Term
| multiple alleles/allelic series |
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Definition
| more than two alleles are present within a group of individuals |
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Term
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Definition
| interaction between genes at a different loci that affect the same characteristic |
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Term
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Definition
| one gene masks the effect of another gene at a different locus |
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Term
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Definition
| the gene that does the masking in epistasis |
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Term
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Definition
| gene whose effect is masked in epistasis |
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Term
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Definition
| test designed to determine whether two different mutations are at the same locus (allelic) ornat two different loci (nonallelic). Two individuals that are homozygous for two independently derived mutations are crossed producing F1 progeny that are heterozygous for the mutations. If the mutations are at the same locus, the F1 will have a mutant phenotype. If the mutations are at different loci, the F1 will have a wild-type phenotype |
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Term
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Definition
| two different mutations in the heteroxygous condition are exhibited as the wild-type phenotype; indicates that the mutations are at different loci |
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Term
| sex-influenced characteristics |
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Definition
| determined by autosomal genes and are inherited according to Mendel's principles, but are expressed differently in males and females |
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Term
| sex-limited characteristic |
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Definition
| expressed only in one sex and has zero penetrance in the other sex |
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Term
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Definition
| inheritance of characteristics encoded by genes located in the cytoplasm. Because the cytoplasm is usually contributed entirely by only one parent, most cytoplasmically inherited characteristics are inherited from a single parent |
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Term
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Definition
| the phenotype of the offspring is determined by the genotype of the mother; genes are inherited from both parents |
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Term
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Definition
| the differential expressions of genetic material depending on whether it is inherited from the male or female parent |
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Term
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Definition
| reversible changes to DNA influence the expression of traits |
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Term
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Definition
| the range of phenotypes produced by a genotype in different environments |
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Term
| temperature sensative allele |
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Definition
| an allele whose product is functional only at certain temperatures |
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Term
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Definition
| environmental factors alone can produce a phenotype that is the same as the phenotype produced by a genotype |
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Term
| discontinuous characteristics |
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Definition
| characteristics which have few easily distinguished phenotypes |
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Term
| continuous characteristics/quantitative characteristics |
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Definition
| characteristics that exhibit a continuous distribution of phenotypes |
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Term
| polygenic characteristics |
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Definition
| characteristics encoded by genes at many loci |
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Term
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Definition
| one gene affects multiple characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
a complete set of genetic instructions for any given organism
-encoded in either DNA or RNA |
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Term
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Definition
| encompasses the basic principles of heredity and how traits are passed from one generation to the next |
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Term
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Definition
| concerns the chemical nature of the gene itself: how genetic information is encoded, replicated, and expressed |
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Term
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Definition
| explores the genetic composition of groups of individual members of the same species (populations) and how that composition changes over time and geographic space |
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Term
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Definition
| organisms having characteristics that make them particularly useful for genetic analysis and about which a tremendous amount of genetic information has accumulated |
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Term
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Definition
| specific peices of information travel from various parts of the body to the reproductive organs, from which they are passed to the embryo |
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Term
| inheritance of aquired characteristics |
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Definition
| traits acquired in one's lifetime become incorporated into one's heredity information and are passed to offspring |
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Term
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Definition
| offspring are a blend of parental traits |
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Term
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Definition
| the cells in the reproductive organs carry a complete et of genetic information that is passed to the egg and sperm |
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Term
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Definition
-transmission (classical) genetics: flourished from 1900 to 1930
-molecular genetics
-population (evolutionary) genetics |
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Term
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Definition
| a miniature adult existed within the egg or sperm |
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Term
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Definition
| theory of evolution through natural selection in 1856 |
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Term
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Definition
| discovered the basic principles of heredity in the 1860's, but his work was unknown until the twentieth century |
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Term
| James Watson and Fracis Crick |
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Definition
| structure of DNA was described in 1953 |
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