Term
|
Definition
| hematoxilyn: basic dye, dyes acids blue (nuclei) eosin: acidic dye, dyes bases red (structural proteins) |
|
|
Term
| Purpose of epithelium and general organization: |
|
Definition
-Covers and acts as a barrier
-composed of: the epithelial cells, basement membrane, and the underlying connective tissue. |
|
|
Term
| Describe the make up of microvilli. |
|
Definition
| -They are made up of actin filaments, they extend the surface area, and are extensions of the cytoplasm.
-The actin filaments terminate at the terminal web |
|
|
Term
| Describe Cilia and their make up. |
|
Definition
| Cilia are feathery extensions made of microtubules (a 9+2 arrangement).
-They terminate in terminal bodies |
|
|
Term
| What are stereocilia composed of? |
|
Definition
| They are composed of actin and are more similar to microvilli. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Tight junctions: seals cells together, acts as a barrier to prevent material from moving in between cells
-They form bead like structures that are used to zipper the cells together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Intermediate junctions: seals cells together, tissue morphogenesis, and cell communication
-Membranes aren't as closely associated -Have a large plaque that anchors to actin in the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Desmosomes: adhesion and signaling
-Have keratin filaments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Anchor the cell to the basement membrane
-Not really a half desmosome because it has a different protein make-up distinct from desmosomes. |
|
|
Term
Dense CT
-Types and examples |
|
Definition
-Dense regular: ligaments/tendons, parallel collagen, flattened nuclei
-Dense irregular: mammary gland/dermis, organ capsules, random arrangement of fibers |
|
|
Term
Loose CT
-major composition |
|
Definition
| -Packing material throughout the body -Mostly type I Collagen and elastin
-ground substance is made of GAGs (the strong negative GAGs hydrate the CT) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Mesenchyme: pretty much loose CT with lots of reticular fibers -Mucouse CT: found in umbilical cord, know Wharton's Jelly |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Collagen, elastic, or reticular fibers -Secreted by fibroblasts or smooth muscle cells
-Fibers formed from fibrils |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Forms a triple helix -α chains are assembled into procollagen in the ER -Vitamin C is required for hydroxylation (makes H bonds for)
-Collagen synthesis is finished in extracellular grooves |
|
|
Term
Elastic Fibers
-What holds elastic fibers to each other? |
|
Definition
| -Composed of random coils of elastin
-Fibrillin is a key component and without it the fibers form sheets -Marfan's Syndrome results dysfunctional elastic tissue
-Desmosine holds fibers to each other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Meshwork, branched network
-Important for wound healing -Made up of collagen fibrils |
|
|
Term
| Resident CT Cells Transient CT Cells |
|
Definition
-Fibroblast: the main player that secretes most of the fiber and matrix
-Macrophages: come from monocytes
-Mast cells: similar to basophils, release histamine and heparin, good for allergic rxns and inflammation
-Adipocytes and adult stem cells
-Transient: white blood cells that come in |
|
|
Term
Hyaline cartilage basics
-Where's it found, what's in it? |
|
Definition
-Found in the ribs, larynx, and trachea.
-Most of it is water
-Mostly type II collagen
-Can grow by deposition or interstitially.
-No blood vessels in cartilage layer |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What type of hyaline cartilage does not have a perichondrium? |
|
Definition
| -Articular cartilage in joints |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Basically hyaline cartilage but with a network of elastic fibers.
-Pretty rare. examples include the ear and the epiglottis |
|
|
Term
Distinguishing features of hyaline cartilage (histologically)
- physical matrices |
|
Definition
-Chondrocytes: secrete the matrix
-Perichondrium: surrounds cartilage, where chondroblasts come from
-Isogenous groups: clusters of chondrocytes
-Capsular matrix: dark rim around each chondrocyte
-Territorial matrix: dark shadow around isogenous groups.
-Interterritorial matrix: old matrix in between chondrocytes |
|
|
Term
Fibrocartilage
-What are you going to look for? |
|
Definition
-Has Type I cartilage to withstand shearing and compression forces.
-May look like DRCT, but LOOK FOR round chondrocytes in lacunae.
-Examples: intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and meniscus.
-No perichondrium on this one |
|
|
Term
| How does most of the diaphysis get its nutrients? |
|
Definition
| -A single nutrient artery |
|
|
Term
| 4 main components of a synovial joint: |
|
Definition
-Synovial cavity
-Synovial membrane
-Articular cartilage
-Periosteum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Osteoblast: on bone surface, secrete osteoid(organic), and leave vesicles that cause mineralization
-Osteocyte: in lacunae
-Osteoclast: bone breakdown, monocyte |
|
|
Term
| What is bone composed of? |
|
Definition
-Mostly matrix
-30% organic (Type I collagen), 70% mineral (hydroxyapatite)
-too little collagen=brittle; too little mineral=soft |
|
|
Term
| How osteons are remodeled |
|
Definition
| -A cutting cone of osteoclasts carves out an osteon and osteoblasts follow close behind in the closing cone and fill it back in. |
|
|
Term
| Area carved out by an osteoclast: |
|
Definition
-It's called a Howship's lacuna.
-The ruffled border is the part of the osteoclast working on bone. |
|
|
Term
| Effects of Calcitonin and Parathyroid hormone -Vitamins necessary for bone growth |
|
Definition
-Calcitonin puts calcium in the bone
-PTH results in bone breakdown and increases serum Ca
-Vit D needed for Ca absorption from intestine
-Vit C needed for collagen synthesis
-Too much Vit A results in fragile bones, too little halts bone growth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Somite scleratome
-Lateral plate mesoderm (somatopleure)
-NC |
|
|
Term
| 4 Steps of forming bone endochondrally |
|
Definition
1) Mesoderm condenses into hyaline cartilage model
2) Periosteal bone collar forms in the diaphysis
3) Cartilage gets calcified, dies, and is replaced. A primary center of ossification is formed.
4) Secondary centers of ossification appear |
|
|
Term
| Where does bone length growth occur? |
|
Definition
| -Only at the epiphysis due to the epiphyseal plate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) Zone of reserve: cartilage backup
2) Zone of proliferation: cartilage cells divide
3) Zone of hypertrophy: cartilage cells expand
4) Zone of calcification: cartilage matrix calcifies and cells die
5) Zone of resorption: where ossification happens. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-All bone starts out as woven (fetal)
-All compact bone is lamellar
-Spongy can be woven or lamellar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Due to childhood illness or trauma
-Cells don't divide, zone of proliferation is affected and no growth occurs
-Zone of resorption is not as affected and mineralization continues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-At birth the diaphysis are ossified. The epiphysis, tarsal, and carpal bones are mostly cartilage
-Secondary and primary ossification in childhood. Fusion of epiphy-diaphy in adolescence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-number of muscle cells innervated by one neuron
- |
|
|
Term
| Skeletal Muscle -Characteristics & hierarchy |
|
Definition
| -Striated w/peripheral nuclei -myofilaments-->myofibril-->fiber(cell)-->fascicle-->skeletal muscle |
|
|
Term
| Skeletal muscle CT layers |
|
Definition
-Endomysium: around each muscle cell(fiber)
-Perimysium: around fascicles and forms septa
-Epimysium: surround an entire muscle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a) Z-line
b) H-zone
c) I-band
d) A-band
*=sarcomere
1-myosin
2-actin |
|
|
Term
| How muscles contract and how the strength is determined. |
|
Definition
-All about actin and myosin ratchet system.
-Need Ca for myosin to bind to tropomyosin on actin
-Z-lines get closer and H-zone disappears.
-Strength of contraction depends on the number of myosin heads that are bound. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Dystrophin is a protein that connects the sarcomere to extra-cellular components
-Without it fibers break down and get replaced by CT |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-T-tubules bring the membrane depolarization to the sarcomeres
-A triad is a t-tubule with 2 ER cisterns |
|
|
Term
| T-Tubules in skeletal vs cardiac muscle |
|
Definition
Skeletal: all about the depolarization, the mechanical connection for Ca is not as important.Triad.
Cardiac: extra cellular Ca is crucial, depolarization doesn't matter at all. Diad. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) Ca-->myosin binds to actin
2) ATP attaches to myosin--> head is released from actin
3) ATP hydrolyzed to ADP & Pi-->myosin head cocks
4) Pi is released--> tight reattachment and power stroke |
|
|
Term
| Things that make smooth muscle contract: |
|
Definition
| Lots of stimuli including hormones, nerves, stretch. |
|
|
Term
| How smooth muscle contracts |
|
Definition
-Uses actin and myosin, but different mechanism.
-Myosin gets phosphorylated, but calcium is still important. |
|
|
Term
| 3 Functions of the lymph system |
|
Definition
1-remove excess fluids
2-absorb and transport fat
3-produce immune cells |
|
|
Term
| B-Lymphocyte vs C-Lymphocyte |
|
Definition
B-Lymphocyte: Matures in bone marrow, secretes antibodies
T-Lymphocyte: Matures in thymus, involved in cell-mediated immunity to foreign invasion. |
|
|
Term
| Defining characteristics of lymphatic vessels. |
|
Definition
-No smooth muscle, covered in endothelium, basement membrane is scant if present at all.
-Valves to prevent back flow. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue
Also BALT- bronchi
-Lymphatic nodules are not enclosed by a capsule with plasma cells and lymphocytes
-Secondary nodules also exist: germinal center and mantle zone |
|
|
Term
Lymph node characteristics
-Where are the T and B Cells? |
|
Definition
| -Have a capsule, lymphatic nodules (B-Cell rich), diffuse/deep cortical zone (T-Cell rich), medulla, hilus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
lobulated, where T-cells proliferate.
-Distinguishing feature is Hassall's corpuscle in the medulla has large lymphocytes |
|
|
Term
Defining characteristics of splenic tissue
-PALS |
|
Definition
-Encapsulated with deep CT trabeculae
-White(B-lymphocytes) and Red(filter for/stores RBCs) pulp
-PALS: periarteriolar lymphatic sheath: similar to lymphatic nodule, follows central artery. |
|
|
Term
| Functions of the spleen (7) |
|
Definition
-Proliferation of lymphocytes
-Production of abs
-Removal of macromolecular antigens
-Formation of blood cells
-Removal of damaged/old red blood cells and platelets
-Retrieval of iron from red cell hemoglobin
-Storage of blood |
|
|
Term
| What 3 layers make up the chorion? |
|
Definition
| -Cytotrophoblast, syncitiotrophoblast, and extraembryonic mesoderm |
|
|
Term
| Important weeks in development of the embryo: |
|
Definition
1-fertilization/travel to the uterus/morula and blastocyst
2-implantation/week of 2s
3-gastrulation, 3 layer disc
4-somites, neural tube, folding |
|
|
Term
| Where does a cell body in the CNS come from? PNS? |
|
Definition
CNS: neural tube
PNS: Neural Crest Cell |
|
|
Term
| Describe a typical spinal nerve |
|
Definition
-Has ventral and dorsal rami
-Has a has dorsal, lateral, and anterior cutaneous branches |
|
|
Term
| What do ventral horns contain? Dorsal horns? Dorsal root ganglion? |
|
Definition
-Ventral: cell bodies of the somatomotor neurons
-Dorsal horn: relay neurons
-Dorsal Root Ganglion: cell bodies of sensory neurons |
|
|
Term
| What is the structure that separates the dorsal and ventral roots? |
|
Definition
-The denticulate ligaments
-The dorsal root is superior to the denticulate ligaments and the ventral root is deep. |
|
|
Term
Where does the spinal cord end?
What's the structure called where it ends?
What anchors the spinal cord? |
|
Definition
-L1/L2
-Conus medularis
-Filum terminale (pia mater) |
|
|
Term
Where do sympathetic nerves exit the spinal cord?
-Then where do they go? |
|
Definition
-Only between T1 and L2 out of the lateral horns
-They have two options: synapse in the sympathetic trunk or in the collateral ganglia (pelvic viscera)
-If they synapse in the sympathetic trunk they can then either go straight to their target (thoracic viscera) or come back into the spinal nerve to the body wall. |
|
|
Term
Parasympathetics
-Where do they come from? |
|
Definition
-Cholinergic
-Only leave the brain or sacral region
-Very long pre-synaptic nerves |
|
|
Term
| Unique aspects of perineurium |
|
Definition
-Secretes collagen like a fibroblast
-tight junctions like epithelium
-can contract like smooth muscle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"Typical Body Segment"
-spinal cord/vertebrae
-epaxial/hypaxial muscle
-spinal nerves (dorsal/ventral rami)
-blood vessels, gut, lining |
|
|
Term
| The 3 muscle layers of the abdomen converge into what? |
|
Definition
-The aponeurosis, form the linea alba, and cover the rectus abdominis
-also continuous down to the inguinal ring |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Anterior Longitudinal Ligament
2. Posterior Longitudinal Ligament
3. Ligamentum Flava
4. Interspinous Ligament
5. Supraspinous ligament
6. Intertransverse ligament |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 main future divisions of the intraembryonic celom? |
|
Definition
1) Pericardial cavity
2) Pleural cavity
3) Peritoneal Cavity
These three are continuous in early development |
|
|
Term
| Describe the layers of the pericardium. |
|
Definition
There are 3: A fibrous parietal layer, a serous parietal layer, and a serous visceral layer.
-The serous parietal layer is the inner surface of the fibrous parietal layer
-The visceral serous layer is the same as epicardium. |
|
|
Term
| What is contained in the pleural cavity? |
|
Definition
-Normally nothing except serous fluid
-It is the space between the parietal/visceral pleura in the deflated balloon analogy. |
|
|
Term
| Summary of muscles involved in breathing |
|
Definition
-Inspiration: diaphragm/ext. intercostals
-Expiration: passive-relaxation of diaphragm/ex.intercostals
-Forced inspiration: add on scalenes, SCM, pecs
-Forced expiration: abs, internal intercostals |
|
|
Term
| Describe the contents of the mediastinum. |
|
Definition
| -Heart, great vessels, trachea, esophagus. |
|
|
Term
| Where does lymph re-enter the blood stream? |
|
Definition
Via the jugular trunk, subclavian trunk, and the bronchomedastinal trunk.
-Only on the left side of the body |
|
|
Term
| Left-right lymph drainage |
|
Definition
-Drainage into the neck veins is bi-lateral above the umbilicus
-Below the umbilicus all lymph dumps into the thoracic duct and then into the left side veins
-Deep thoracic body wall dumps into the thoracic duct |
|
|
Term
| Superficial vs deep lymph flow |
|
Definition
-Superficial body wall lymph goes to the axillary or superficial inguinal nodes before penetrating the deep fascia
-Deep body wall lymph goes directly to the deep ascending pathway |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-All superficial lymph goes to the superficial inguinal nodes
-Deep lymph goes to the deep inguinal nodes
-Exception is the lateral foot drains into the popliteal nodes and joins up with the deep path. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-upper lateral breast drains to the axillary nodes
-part of the mammary gland drains deep (this is an exception to the stratification rule), this joins up with the liver and sometimes the superficial inguinal nodes |
|
|
Term
| What is the ALARA principle? |
|
Definition
| As low as reasonably achievable |
|
|
Term
| 5 x-ray densities from lowest to highest |
|
Definition
Air(black)
Fat
Soft tissue/water (gray)
Calcium
Metal (white) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) x-ray
2) ultrasound
3) Magnetic resonance
4) Nuclear Medicine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Plain radiographs
-mammography
-fluoroscopy (oral/rectal contrast of barium or iodine)
-Angiography (iodine injected into an artery or vein)
-Myelography (iodine into the epidural space)
-Arthography (air or contrast injected into a joint)
-CT (can use contrast to enhance) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Tagging a tissue specific molecule
-Physiologic imaging rather than anatomic
-Includes PET-positron emission tomography |
|
|
Term
| 4 types of drug receptors |
|
Definition
-Enzymes
-Cell surface/intracellular proteins
-Structural proteins
-Nucleic acids |
|
|
Term
| Classes of drugs based on action |
|
Definition
1) Agonists: typically mimic the natural ligands
2) Antagonists: devoid of activity on their own, but block the action of agonists
3) Partial agonist: don't produce the max effect, can act as antagonists
4) Inverse agonists: really antagonist, lower activity below basal level |
|
|
Term
| Orthosteric vs allosteric |
|
Definition
Orthosteric is the normal agonist binding site
Allosteric is a site separate from the active site and can be positive or negative. |
|
|
Term
| Uncompetitive vs. noncompetitive |
|
Definition
-Both are allosteric
Uncompetitive: agonist must bind first in order for the site to be accessible
Noncompetitive: accessible even if the agonist isn't |
|
|
Term
| What would the EC50 be for a partial agonist that has a 60% maximal effect? |
|
Definition
| It would be the concentration of drug that gives 30% of the max. |
|
|
Term
How do you calculate the
drug effect of a drug? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
What is the relationship between A and B? A and C?
[image] |
|
Definition
A is more potent than B.
A is equipotent with C.
Potency is a comparative measure of the conc/dose of drugs that produces a relative effect. |
|
|
Term
| What is the efficacy of a drug? |
|
Definition
-The effectiveness of a drug to produce a response.
-The max effect is 100% efficacy.
-Antagonists have 0 efficacy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Measures all or none drug responses. Dead or alive, pregnant or not.
-ED50: effective dose where 50% of the individuals exhibit a response. |
|
|
Term
| What is the therapeutic index? |
|
Definition
-A measure of drug safety.
=(Toxic ED50)/(ED50) |
|
|
Term
Competitive antagonist curves
-How are efficacy and potency affected? |
|
Definition
-The effect of the antagonist can be overcome with higher concentration, curves get pushed to the right
-Efficacy is not affected, but potency is. |
|
|
Term
Noncompetitve antagonist curves
-How are efficacy and potency affected? |
|
Definition
-Efficacy is reduced
-Potency is unaffected
-Can bind at the agonist site or an allosteric site, doesn't matter if agonist is present or not |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Related to inhibition response curves
-Keep a constant [antagonist] and vary [agonist].
-IC50 will depend on [agonist] and is not constant |
|
|
Term
| What is a Schild analysis? |
|
Definition
-A good measure of antagonist activity
-Gives a constant independent of agonist and experimental conditions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -The maximal response can be reached without all of the receptors binding |
|
|
Term
Monod-Wyman-Changeux
vs.
Kosland-Nemethy-Filmer |
|
Definition
MWC: receptors are only in two conformations
KNF: receptors undergo sequential changes to many possible conformations. |
|
|
Term
| 5 Types of receptor families |
|
Definition
1) Cytoplasmic/nuclear receptors
2) Receptor Tyrosine Kinase
3) TK-Associated
4) Ligand and voltage gated channels
5) GPCR |
|
|
Term
Intracellular Receptors
-types of ligands, what they do, examples |
|
Definition
-Ligand must be lipophilic
-Usually enter the nucleus at some point and act as a TF
-examples: Thyroid and estrogen |
|
|
Term
RTK and TK associated receptors
-general characteristics
-Types of ligands for each |
|
Definition
-Ligands are extracellular
-Slow pathway
-Dimerization of receptor is necessary
-Many RTK ligands are growth factors
-Tk-associated ligands are cytokines |
|
|
Term
| 3 ways to activate RTKs and how cancer is associated w/RTKs |
|
Definition
1) ligand that is a dimer
2) Transmembrane protein with GAGs that force dimerization
3) Receptors on another cell membrane
that force dimerization
-Cancer: cancer cells can mutate the receptor against drugs |
|
|
Term
Ligand and voltage gated ion channels
-Ways to activate
-Types of ligand based |
|
Definition
-3 ways to activate: ligands(NTs), membrane voltage, mechanical deformation
-Fast signaling
-3 Types of ligand based: Cys-looped, glutamate, ATP
-Most are excitatory, except the GABA family of cys looped |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-When good ion/voltage gated channels go bad
-Examples include Cystic Fibrosis and Long QT syndrome |
|
|
Term
GPCRs
-What are the ligands?
-Classes |
|
Definition
-Speed: faster than RTK, but slower than ion channels
-ligands can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins
-4 classes that differ greatly in their structure (Rhodopsin, Secretin, Metabotropic, & Frizzled) |
|
|
Term
| Another name for drug desensitization and the two types |
|
Definition
Tachyphylaxis-in the constant presence of a drug many receptors have diminished responsiveness.
1) Receptor-mediated: only the activated receptor desensitizes, leads to loss of function and fewer functional receptors.
2) Non-receptor-mediated: downstream elements are affected |
|
|
Term
| Functions of membrane potential |
|
Definition
All cells: Influx of Ca2+, ATP synthesis
Excitable cells: influx of Na+ |
|
|
Term
| What is responsible for the resting membrane potential of a cell? |
|
Definition
-It's the imbalance of Na+ and K+ due to the Na-K-ATPast pump
-More Na+ on the outside, more K+ on the inside
-K+ is leaky |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Due to leaky K+, it leaks out and leaves a net neg charge on the inside of a cell
-Opposing electrostatic and chemical forces prevent further leakage |
|
|
Term
Nernst Equations for permeability
-How to account for permeabilties |
|
Definition
At room temp:Ei=58mV*Log(Ci-out/Ci-in)
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz accounts for individual permeabilities |
|
|
Term
Equivalent Circuit model for membrane potential
-basic description
-advantages |
|
Definition
-plasma membrane is essentially a simple electric circuit
-lipid bilayer is a capacitor, ion channels are conductors
-parameters are easily measured
-explains response times |
|
|
Term
Stimuli that can change membrane potential
-Natural and Artificial |
|
Definition
Natural: Neurotransmitters, hormones, toxins
Artificial: increased extracellular K+, injected Na+, drugs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A: Na channels open
B: More Na channels open
C: Na channels close
D: K channels open
E: K channels close |
|
|
Term
| Two types of transport proteins |
|
Definition
1) Carrier protein: slow, solute binds, requires conformational change
2) Channel protein: fast, filters by size and charge, allows ions and H20 to slip through |
|
|
Term
| How the Na/K ATPase pump works |
|
Definition
| -Enzyme is open to the inside of the cell, 3 Na+ bind, ATP binds, one Phosph group is hydrolyzed, enzyme changes and opens up to the outside of the cell, Na+ leave and 2 K+ bind, P is released and enzyme switches back to the inside to release the 2 K+. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Ca pump in the ER
-Has a negatively charged cage to hold Ca2+ |
|
|
Term
| 4 ways to activate a gated ion channel |
|
Definition
1) Voltage
2) Ligand outside
3) Ligand inside
4) Mechanically |
|
|
Term
| Categories of cells based on replication |
|
Definition
-Continuous: skin, bone
-Conditional: can replicate if needed, liver, pancreas, kidney
-Non-dividing: heart, brain, get replaced with collagen if damaged |
|
|
Term
Stem Cells
-Potency
-How quick do they divide? |
|
Definition
-Totipotent or pluripotent
-Used to think that stem cells divided slowly, but now think that they divide very quickly
-Asymmetric division and retention of maternal DNA |
|
|
Term
| Vocab: mitogen, motogen, morphogen |
|
Definition
Mitogen: cause cell division
Motogen: cause cells to migrate/scatter
Morphogen: induce differentiation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Change of one differentiated cell type to another differentiated cell type
-Reversible
-Examples are Barrett's esophagus(intestine like esophageal tissue) or myositis ossificans (calcification in muscle), also smokers lung |
|
|
Term
Dysplasia
-what do the cells look like? |
|
Definition
-abnormal cell growth
-sometimes reversible
-always linked to DNA damage
-cells have an increasing nucleus:cytoplasm ratio. |
|
|
Term
| What can a cell do in response to injury? |
|
Definition
-Ignore it
-Adapt
-Divide
-Die |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Death of groups of cells
-5 types: coagulative, liquefaction, caseous, fat, and tumor |
|
|
Term
Coagulative necrosis
-What causes it?
-Physical descriptions?
-Responses? |
|
Definition
-Caused by ischemia or toxic agents
-Commonly seen in heart, kidney, spleen, brain
-pale, opaque, dry, no nuclei
-early response is inflammation, late response is scarring by fibroblasts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Necrotic area is liquefied
-Mostly seen in brain
-necrotic tissue is digested and a cyst is formed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Necrotic area is liquefied
-Mostly seen in brain
-necrotic tissue is digested and a cyst is formed |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-A mix of coagulation/liquefaction
-Hallmark is a Granuloma
-Looks like cheese |
|
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Term
Fat necrosis
Tumor Necrosis |
|
Definition
Fat:Almost exclusively in adipose, leads to saponification
Tumor: it exists |
|
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Term
| Mechanisms of injury that lead to necrosis |
|
Definition
1) ATP Depletion-ie from hypoxia, can lead to membrane damage, leakiness, and swelling
2) Free radicals: can damage proteins, nucleic acids, fats.
3) Loss of membrane permeability: leads to Ca influx, critical event in irreversible cell damage
4) Loss of calcium homeostasis: Ca comes in and activates degrading enzymes |
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Term
Apoptosis
-Def and what is the main player? |
|
Definition
-Individual cell death, can be physiological or pathological
-Caspases are the ultimate executioners |
|
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Term
| Two pathways of apoptosis |
|
Definition
1) Intrinsic: Cell can't repair its DNA, so p53 gets activated, activated in chemo, signals work through mitochondria, Cytochrome C is released.
2) Extrinsic: initiated by extracellular receptors, can be activated by T-Cells or macrophages, |
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Term
|
Definition
Apoptosis: Cell shrinkage, specific DNA cleavage, no inflammatory response,
Necrosis: cell swelling, organelles disrupted, plasma membrane disrupted, inflammatory response is common |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-Can be reversible
-End stage steatosis is cirrhosis |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| It's a protein (pore) in the ER that recognizes bad protein and moves it into the cytosol to be tagged and degraded. |
|
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Term
| Pigments that can accumulate in cells |
|
Definition
-Lipofuscin: wear and tear aging pigment, brownish, not toxic as far as we know
-Melanin: macrophages can pick it up
-Hemosiderin: Blackish iron storing from Hb, colors from bruises |
|
|
Term
Pathological Calcification
-2 types and distinguishing feature of one of them |
|
Definition
1) Dystrophic: happens in dying tissues, normal Ca level
2) Metastatic: happens in normal tissue, elevateed Ca level
Dystrophic leads to Psammoma bodies which are calcified entombed tumor cells |
|
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Term
| Pathological Ossifications |
|
Definition
-If due to trauma is called myositis ossificans
-Due to the release of BMPs |
|
|
Term
| What is the Hayflick Limit? |
|
Definition
-Cells stop dividing after about 50 cycles or so
-Related to telomeres and telomerase activity |
|
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Term
|
Definition
1) Self sufficiency in growth signals
2) Insensitivity to growth inhibition signals
3) Evasion of apoptosis
4) Defects in DNA repair
5) Limitless replicative potential
6) Sustained angiogenesis
7) Ability to invade and metastasize |
|
|
Term
| How does EBV relate to cancer? |
|
Definition
| -Ebstein Bar Virus leads lymphomas |
|
|
Term
| 4 Types of pro to-oncogenes+definition |
|
Definition
Def: normal gene that has the potential to change and act as an oncogene
1) Growth Factors
2) Growth Factor Receptors
3) Signal Transducers
4) Transcription Factors |
|
|
Term
| 3 general targets of oncogenes |
|
Definition
1) Cell proliferation
2) Cell differentiation
3) Cell survival |
|
|
Term
| Key players in the apoptosis cascade: |
|
Definition
Pro-apoptosis: p53, BAX, BAK, Cytochrome C, Caspases
Anti-apoptosis: BCL2, MCL1, IAP |
|
|
Term
| What does it mean that a neoplasm is clonal? |
|
Definition
| -Clonal means all the cells come from one abnormal progenitor cell |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Malignant are not well defined in the tissue and mix with the normal tissue, fast growth
Benign are well defined and may have a capsule
-Benign almost never change to malignant, slow growth |
|
|
Term
| 4 Categories of malignant neoplasms |
|
Definition
1) Carcinoma: epithelial derived
2) Sarcoma: mesenchymal derived
3) Lymphoma: lymphocytic derived
4) Melanoma: Melanocytic derived |
|
|
Term
More tumor nomenclature:
Adeno, squamous, leio, rhabdo, chondro, osteo |
|
Definition
Adeno: glandular
Squamous: squamous tumor
Leio: smooth muscle
Rhabdo: skeletal muscle
Chondro: cartilage
Osteo: bone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Pleomorphism: difference in cell shape/size
Anaplasia: lack of differentiation |
|
|
Term
| 3 Factors that affect tumor growth rate |
|
Definition
1) What proportion of cells are dividing?
2) How often do they divide?
3) How many are dying? |
|
|
Term
| 4 Steps of tumor invasion |
|
Definition
1) Loosening cell-cell adhesions
2) Degrade ECM (including BM and interstitial CT)
3) Changes in attachment to ECM proteins (these normally keep epithelial cells in a resting state)
4) Locomotion/migration-tumor cells have to contract the actin cytoskeleton to move forward |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) subclone of original tumor cells invades BM
2) Migrate through ECM
3) Penetrate a vessel
4) Survive/transport in the vessel
5) Arrest-stop in an organ
6) Extravasation-get out of the vessel
7) Survive and grow, set up shop in the new tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1) Lymph-most comon for carcinomas
2) Hematogenous
3) Seeding in body cavities: common for ovarian carcinomas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Grading is for the level of differentiation
-Lower level is better
-Grade 1 (75% resemblance to original tissue)
-Grate 2 (50-75%)
-Grade 3 (25-50%)
-Grade 4 (almost completely anaplastic) |
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|
Term
|
Definition
-Staging is only for metastatic tumors
-TNM
-T: Size/tissues involved (T1-T4)
-N: how many/number of lymph nodes involved (N0-N3)
-M: Metastasis: Y/N |
|
|
Term
| How cancers actually affect the host |
|
Definition
1) Direct effects: i.e. bowel obstruction
2) Cachexia: wasting/lethargy
3) Paraneoplastic: ie extra hormones
4) Hematologic: immunity, bleeding, anemia |
|
|
Term
| What's the most common dominant oncogene? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Cyclin D-CDK4
-It's the on/off switch for the cell cycle
-It phosphorylates Rb |
|
|
Term
| What is the two hit hypothesis? |
|
Definition
| -Described by Knudson as a genetic change as the first hit and an environmental factor as the second hit in cancer |
|
|
Term
| What are 4 regulators of the cell cycle that are dysregulated in most human tumors? |
|
Definition
-Cyclin D
-CDK4
-Rb
-p16: inhibits CDK4 |
|
|
Term
| What happens if you have a mutated APC/β-catenin pathway? |
|
Definition
| You get 1000's of colon polyps at an early age |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-The angiogenic switch is essential for tumor growth
-vessels are usually tortuous and leaky |
|
|
Term
| How do BRCA1 and BRCA2 lead to cancer? |
|
Definition
| -Both are involved in DNA repair, specifically recombination repair |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 necessary factors in chemical carcinogenesis? |
|
Definition
1) Initiation: Irreversible DNA damage in a critical gene
2) Promotion: Cell proliferation, reversible
3) Progression: genetic mutations accumulate and invasion |
|
|
Term
| Electrophilic Theory of chemical carcinogenesis |
|
Definition
-Direct acting carcinogens: seek out nucleophilic DNA and bind to it, creating DNA adducts. Not as common
-Indirect acting carcinogens: must be metabolized first, most carcinogens |
|
|
Term
| Relevance of UV as a carcinogen |
|
Definition
-UVA and UVB are the perps
-They cause pyrimidine dimers and can mutate p53
-nonmelanoma skin cancer is the most common and most preventable cancer |
|
|
Term
| What's the underlying cause of cancer in H. Pylori? |
|
Definition
| -Chronic inflammation/infection leads to reactive oxygen species. |
|
|
Term
| How does HPV lead to cancer? |
|
Definition
| -The HPV protein E6 & E7 promote the degradation of p53, block p21 and inhibits Rb |
|
|
Term
What is the major target of radiation in a cell?
-How does the radiation have its effect? |
|
Definition
-DNA
-If enough DNA is damaged a cell will die
-Effect through direct or indirect action
-Indirect is when radiation hits water and creates radical hydroxyl groups that then act on DNA |
|
|
Term
| What is the first event that takes place after ionizing radiation? |
|
Definition
| -ATM is activated, which induces downstream effects including activating p53 |
|
|
Term
| What can a survival curve tell us about a radiation effect? |
|
Definition
-We can know the D0, the slope of the curve.
-A low D0 means the cell is sensitive to radiation
-A high D0 means the cell is resistant to radiation |
|
|
Term
What are the most radiosensitive parts of the cell cycle?
Most resistant? |
|
Definition
-Sensitive: M and G2
-Resistant: late S Phase, G1/2 checkpoints
-G0 is especially resistant to radiation |
|
|
Term
| Typically, the more a cell divides the more sensitive it is to radiation. What is the exception? |
|
Definition
| -lymphocytes are the most radiosensitive, even though they are reverting postmitotic cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Repair: waiting lets normal systems repair
-Reassortment: late S cells will be left, if you let them turnover, then they can become a target
-Repopuation: tumor repopulates, giving small low doses allows the tumor to grow back
-Reoxygenation: enhances therapy, hypoxic cells become poxic and radiosensitive |
|
|
Term
| When do early and late reactions show up after radiation exposure? |
|
Definition
-Early: within 90 days things like skin, intestine, and testis
-Late: from 6 months to 5 years, things like spinal cord, kidney, lung, and bladder. |
|
|
Term
| The effects of acute total body radiation exposure |
|
Definition
1) Cerebral syndrome: 50 Gy, death in 30-50 hours
2) GI syndrome: 10Gy, death in 9 days
3) Hematopoietic syndrome: 2.5-10 Gy, possibly survivable |
|
|
Term
| Stochastic vs. Deterministic radiation events |
|
Definition
-Stochastic: no threshold, DNA damage can happen at any level
-Deterministic: some threshold must be passed. For stuff like hematopoietic syndrome, |
|
|
Term
| External Beam Radiation Therapy |
|
Definition
Many different types: photon, electron, proton, neutron
Photon is very common and includes:
-High energy x-ray beam
-Level in the megavolt range |
|
|
Term
| Typical breast cancer treatment dose |
|
Definition
Total dose: 50 Gy
2 Gy per day
so 25 treatments |
|
|
Term
IMRT radiation
-Dose for throat cancer |
|
Definition
Intensity modulated radiation therapy
-uses input from a bunch of computers
-Dose 7o Gy
-60-70% of patients are treated with this right now |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Used in prostate cancer, place radioactive material directly into the cancer
-Low dose is permanent, dose given in days to weeks
-High dose is temporary, dose given in minutes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Short course, high dose
-Use a gamma knife: head is fixed
or cyberknife: can track a moving target (lung cancer)
- |
|
|
Term
| Intra-operative radiotherapy |
|
Definition
-Delivered at the time of surgery
-Single treatment
-Good for breast cancer
-Novel tech is the TARGIT machine that uses various spherical applicators |
|
|
Term
What are interferons and interleukins?
-toxicities?
-what recurrence do they prevent? |
|
Definition
-They are secreted molecules that effect cell proliferation
-They are glycoproteins that are antiviral and antiproliferative
-Can activate T and NK cells
-Toxicity includes cytopenias and elevated liver function
-Good against melanoma recurrence |
|
|
Term
Monoclonal antibodies
-What's the best one? |
|
Definition
-Have many targets for many malignancies
-Best one is Rituximab |
|
|
Term
| What is Adoptive Immunotherapy? |
|
Definition
-Using NK cells, T-cells, macrophages, etc. to fight cancer
-Common for is stem cell transplant |
|
|
Term
| What is the area on a lymph node where the afferent duct dumps lymph? |
|
Definition
-Subcapsular sinus
-usually a white space on a sample |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the feature of a myelinated nerve with continuous cytoplasm? |
|
Definition
-Schmidt-Lanterman clefts
-SL cleft |
|
|
Term
| Dorsal Root ganglion histological features |
|
Definition
-Round cell bodies
-Central nuclei |
|
|
Term
| Distinguishing features of sympathetic ganglion |
|
Definition
-Multipolar bodies
-irregular cell body
-eccentric nuclei |
|
|
Term
| What is Myelin Basic Protein? |
|
Definition
| MBP is the protein targeted by the autoimmune response in MS that is responsible for keeping myelin compacted |
|
|
Term
| What are the 3 classes of synapses? |
|
Definition
-Axosomatic/axodentritic
-Asospinous
-Axoaxonic |
|
|
Term
| Layers of the thoracic body wall |
|
Definition
| -Skin(epidermis (epithelial) and dermis (CT))-->superficial fascia-->deep fascia-->muscle/bone-->endothoracic fascia-->parietal pleura |
|
|
Term
| Intrinsic muscles of the back |
|
Definition
1) Splenius
2) Erector spinae (longissimus, spinalis, ilocostalis
3) Transversospinalis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Use when you have small numbers
Odds ratio=(A/C)/(B/D) |
|
|
Term
| How does estrogen affect bone deposition? |
|
Definition
| -Estrogen inhibits osteoclasts. |
|
|
Term
| 4 functions of tumor suppressor genes |
|
Definition
| block oncogenes, repress TF, regulate cell cycle, initiate apoptosis |
|
|
Term
| 4 classes of proto-oncogenes |
|
Definition
| growth factors, growth factor receptors, signal transducers, transcription factors |
|
|
Term
1) Where does the dural sac end?
2) What's the Stellate trunk? |
|
Definition
1) S2
2) sympathetic trunk for heart and lungs |
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