steers= male cattle castrated young to gain weight quickly

bulls= older males used for breeding and later in processed meats/pet foods

hiefers= female cows that have not given birth

calves= 3-8 months, too old for veal and too young for beef

veal= 3weeks-3months, movement of animals is restricted to ensure very tender meat, meat has milky flavor pale color and tender texture

free range veal= movement is unrestricted resulting in less tender meat

lamb= sheep less than 14 mos old

mutton= sheep older than 14 mos, darker and tougher and stronger flavor

gennerally sluaghtered between 5 1/2mos - 7mos

pigs= <4mos old

hogs= >4mos old

highest source of protien

muscles made up of muscles fibers surrounded by saccrolemma

each fiber is filled with cell fluid and a bundle of muscle fibrils

smaller fibrils create finer bundles resluting in a delicate velvety texture

cause contraction and relaxation of muscles

fibrils separate into sacromeres which contian protiens actin and myosin

contraction occurs when actin and myosin slide over one another and the shortening creates actinomyosin

composed mostly of protiens and mucopolysaccrides

collagen= most abundant protien, tough and fibrous but converts to gel when exposed to moist heat

two other main types of tissue protien:

~elastin= does not soften when heated and should be removed before cooking

~reticulin

tenderness determined by type/amount of tissue

high connective tissue=tough meat

low=tender

the more a muscle is exercised the higher the connective tissue

meats high in connective tissue are more flavorful

collagen increases as animals age resulting in tougher meats

meats from older animals should be moist-heated slow at low temp

cover fat= fat on the outside of meat; retains moisture, usually separated from meats prior to cooking

marbling(intramuscular fat)= fat found within muscles; fat content depends on genetics, age, diet, exercise, and cut of meat

fat color and texture varies by breed:

fat is whiter in younger meat

higher polyunsaturated in softer

fat in beef is more hard, brittle, and dense than in lamb

serves as landmarks for identifying various cuts from a carcass

marrow= soft fatty material in center of bones

red stored in blood vessels

yellow in long bones

used to increase production

not permitted in all countries

allowed in cattle and sheep but not swine/poultry

approved hormones:

testosterone, progesterone, estradiol, trenbolone acetate, melengestrol acetate, zeranol

over 3/4 north american cattle treated with hormones

shield animals from disease

promote growth

some believe it could cause resistance to medicinal antibiotics in humans

 ~meats color is number one factor influencing consumer purchase

~color of meat derives from two protiens

1. myoglobin= higher the presence the brighter red the product; the more exercised a muscle is the more red it is; red color of meat increases with age

2. hemoglobin

color of meat also varies according to species(beef is darker than other meats)

myoglobin in meat is purplish-red but turns bright red when exposed to O2

when exposed to bacteria or certain lighting turns meat brownish-red

plastic wrap that is permeable to O2 is more widely used b retailers because meat keeps bright red apperance

cooking turns color of raw meat to bright red

 Denature of pigment-containing proteins causes well-done meat to turn grayish brown

yellow, green, and faded colors result from storing meat too long

nonprotien nitrogen compounds from which meat derives some of its flavor

most common: creatine, creatinine, urea, uric acid

higher amounts in meat from older amimals

water soluble so some flavor is lost when cooking in liquids 

federal meat inspection act of 1906= all meat crossing state or country lines must submit to mandatory inspection

performed by usda

guarantee of wholesomeness not qaulity or tenderness

meat act 1967= meat sold within states follow federal requirement standards

1997= incorporated hazard analysis and critical control points and mandaory e. coli testing

voluntary

cut between 12th-13th rib to expose rib muscle

based on color, grain, surface, texture,and fat distribution

what are the main grades of meat?

Prime=very juicy, tender flavorful, highest grade of marbling(found in finer resturaunts and some meat stores)

Choice= quite tender and juicy, good flavor, slightly less marbling than prime(grade found most frequently in retail stores)

Select=fairly tender, not as juicy/flavorful as higher grades, has least marbling of the three therefore contains less fat than the others(cheaper)

standard and commercial grades not sold at retail level

no roll= ungraded meat

melts during heating increasing flavor and percieved tenderness

yellowish fat is less desirable because it may be from older tougher animals

firm is perfered over brittle or runny fat

amount of lean meat on the carcass in proportion to fat, bone, and other edible parts

are the USDA standards for beef(not veal), lamb, mutton, and pork

ranked from 1(highest) to 5(lowest), pork is 1 to 4

~cut of meat or location on animal(most important influence on tenderness)

~age of animal at sluaghter= yonger is more tender

~animals heredity

~animals diet= influences fat accumulation

~meat marbeling

~rigor mortis= meat pH changes during this time and can affect juciness

~slaughtering conditions

~aging(curing) meats

~poor quality= if glycogen has already been converted to lactic before slaughter pH will drop too low

~dark-cutting beef= if gycogen stores are depleted prior to death insuficient lactic acid is prodeced after and pH is too high(meat will be deep purple-brown w/ sticky texture)

~PSE pork= low pH causes pork to become pale, mushy, slimy, and flavorless resulting in very dry cooked meat

~thaw rigor= meat frozen before rigor mortis shrink by 50%

~cold shortening= Chilling too rapidly before rigor mortis results in tougher meat

~Green meat = Cooking meat in rigor mortis state results in tough & tasteless meat

enzymes naturally found in meat break down muscle tissue which improves texture/flavor

hanging carcass aids in aging by strechting muscles

types of aging:

dry= hung in refridgerated units at 34F-38F with low or high humidity for 1.5-6weeks. the dehydration concentrates flavor(type preferred by fine dining)

fast or wet= aged in shrink wrap 70F at high humidity for 2 days, ultraviolet lights inhibit microbial growth(preferred by retailers)

vacuum-packed= results in less wieght loss and less spoilage. meat divided into smaller cuts, vacuum packed and refridgerated

enzymes= proteolytic enzymes breakdown muscle fibrils. occurs naturally but extra enzymes may be injected just before slaughter.

salts= retain moisture and break down the component surrounding muscle fibers causing release of protiens. increased water retention means increased juiciness

acids= acids or alcohol breakdown outside surface of meat

mechanical= physically breaks bown muscles tissue. includes grinding, cubing, needling, and pounding 

electrical stimulation= for beef and sheep. tenderness increased via electrical current that speeds up glycologen breakdown and enzyme activity. done post-sluaghter/pre- rigor mortis

wholesale(primal)= larger cuts that are sold to retailers then divided further

retail cuts= the smaller results of wholesale cuts; sold to consumers

 *review the in-depth diagrams of cuts of meat

Organ and muscle meats

organ meats include liver kidney and brains and are very soft, very tender, and have very short cook times

muscles meats are tounge, heart, and tripe; they are very tough and require long, slow cook times

Meat sacrificed according to Muslim guidelines

 most meat is approved except pork & carnivorous animals with fangs

meat that has been changed from its original fresh cut

types:

curing= the addition of synthetic nitrates or nitrites, salt, and other perservatives. includes dry curing, brinning, and injection

smoking= exposed to smoke of burning wood. smoke imparts flavor, aroma, and color to foods

canning= processed through either pasturization or sterilization

Drying= meat is cooked and dried

*review food additive in processed meats