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| -He challenged spontaneous generation theory by showing that a sealed flask of broth did not “spontaneously” gave rise to life (microbes). |
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Definition
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Term
| -He also noted that an open flask of broth did give rise to life (microbes). |
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Definition
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Term
| -Conclusions also demonstrated cellular fission of the microbes within the broth; showing microbes have “parents”. |
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
| Important principles of germ theory |
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Definition
-Chain of infection
-Pure culture
-Colonies |
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Definition
| A culture from a single parental cell |
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Term
|
Definition
1: Microorganism must be present in every case of the disease and absent from healthy organisms.
2: Microorganism must be isolated/grown in pure culture.
3: Same disease must result when microorganism is inoculated in healthy host.
4: Same microorganism must be isolated from 2nd diseased host.
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| Microorganism must be present in every case of the disease and absent from healthy organisms. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Microorganism must be isolated/grown in pure culture. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Same disease must result when microorganism is inoculated in healthy host. |
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Term
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Definition
| Same microorganism must be isolated from 2nd diseased host. |
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Term
| exception to Koch's 1st postulate |
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Definition
| Pathogens can infect an individual and cause no symptoms. |
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Term
| Exception to Koch's 3rd postulate |
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Definition
| There can be some pathogens for which there’s no model organism to study it. |
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Term
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Definition
| process in which microbes gain energy by converting sugars into alcohol |
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Term
| introduced smallpox inoculation-1717 |
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Definition
| Lady Mary Wortley Montagu |
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Term
| deliberately infected patients with matter from cowpox -1749-1823. |
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Definition
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Term
-ordered doctors to wash their hands with chlorine, an antiseptic agent.
-Mortality rates fell-1847. |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| -developed carbolic acid to treat wounds and clean surgical instruments-1865. |
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Term
| -developed carbolic acid to treat wounds and clean surgical instruments-1865. |
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Definition
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Term
| Howard Florey and Ernst Chain |
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Definition
| purified penicillin. The first commercial antibiotic to save human lives-1941. |
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Term
| the importance of microbes to the environment |
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Definition
[image]
All life depends on these oxidative and reductive conversions of nitrogen—most of which are performed only by microbes. |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to distinguish small objects close together |
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Term
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Definition
| the difference in color intensity between an object and its background. This is needed for full resolution. |
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Term
| how bright field microscopy works |
|
Definition
1. Light from the source is focused on specimen by condenser.
2. Light then enters objective lens where it is magnified into a real image.
3. The real image is magnified by the ocular lenses to produce a virtual image. |
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Term
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Definition
| image of object magnified only by objective lens |
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Term
|
Definition
| objectives on revolving nosepiece |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Objective Lens (Magnification Varies) |
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Term
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Definition
| Condenser (Collects and direct lights) |
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Term
| limitations of bright field microscopy |
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Definition
| -0.2μm distance between objects is best a bright-field can resolve. It can't detect viruses. -Most cells are colorless -Staining kills cells -Refraction of light is problematic |
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Term
|
Definition
| enable microbes to be visualized as halos of bright light against darkness |
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Term
| how Dark-field optics works |
|
Definition
-Light shines at oblique angle.
-Only light scattered by sample reaches objective.
[image] |
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Term
| how Phase-contrast microscopy works |
|
Definition
Refractive differences in cell components are transformed into differences in light intensity.
[image] |
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Term
| Why is staining microbes important? |
|
Definition
-Increases visibility
-Preserves sample
-Highlights morphological features |
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Term
|
Definition
| where cells are made to adhere to a slide in a fixed position |
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Term
|
Definition
| Heat- (FLAME)- preserves morphology but inactivates enzymes |
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Term
|
Definition
| Chemical -(ETHANOL)- preserves morphology and may also inactivate enzymes |
|
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Term
| some basic dyes that are used |
|
Definition
-METHYLENE BLUE
-CRYSTAL VIOLET
-SAFRANIN
-Hematoxylin |
|
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Term
| the molecules basic dyes bind to |
|
Definition
negatively charged ones, such as...
-Nucleic Acid
-Surface of Bacteria |
|
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Term
| some acidic dyes that are used |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| acidic dyes used often for... |
|
Definition
| cellular structures or background |
|
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Term
| types of differential staining |
|
Definition
-Gram
-Acid-fast
-Endospore |
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Term
|
Definition
| Distinguishes bacteria based on cell-wall properties into two groups: Gram-positive (or) Gram-negative |
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Term
|
Definition
| A diagnostic stain for mycobacteria, which retain the dye fuchsin because of mycolic acids in the cell wall |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| for vegetative and dormant spore |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| the 5 steps of Gram staining |
|
Definition
1: add methanol to the cells to fix the cells to the surface, then air-dry
2: add crystal violet stain (1 minute)
3: add iodine to bind stain to Gram positive cells (1 minute)
4: wash with ethanol for 20 seconds
5: add safranin counterstain (1 min) |
|
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Term
| the 1st step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add methanol to the cells to fix the cells to the surface, then air-dry
Gram positive: clear
Gram negative: clear |
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Term
| the 2nd step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add crystal violet stain (1 minute)
Gram positive: purple
Gram negative: purple |
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Term
| the 3rd step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add iodine to bind stain to Gram positive cells (1 minute)
Gram positive: purple
Gram negative: purple |
|
|
Term
| the 5th step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
add safranin counterstain (1 min)
Gram positive: putple
Gram negative: pink |
|
|
Term
| binding of Gram stain at the molecular level |
|
Definition
[image]
In a Gram-positive cell, multiple layers of peptidoglycan retain the crystal violet–iodide complex. In a Gram-negative cell, the stain leaks out. |
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Term
| Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) |
|
Definition
| the electron beam is scattered from the metal-coated surface of an object, creating a 3D image |
|
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Term
| Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) |
|
Definition
| the electron beam travels through the object, where the electrons are absorbed by an electron-dense metal stain |
|
|
Term
| some advantages of electron microscopy |
|
Definition
-Electron beam wavelength is 100,000x shorter than visible light.
-Great resolution
-Points closer than 0.5nm can be visualized as distinct.
-Useful for visualization of viruses & small cell structures. |
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Term
| GENERAL BACTERIA CHARACTERISTICS |
|
Definition
-Single celled
-Peptidoglycan cell wall
-Lack membrane bound nucleus
-Found in soil/water/air
-Some species may survive extreme temp/pH/salt |
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae evenly distributed (or at poles)? |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| CAPSULE (ALSO CALLED GLYCOCALYX) |
|
Definition
| Slippery outer layer composed of loosely bound polysaccharides |
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|
Term
| The bilayer in bacterial cells contains ______, such as hopanoids. |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| In bacterial membranes, the reinforcing agents are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how hopanoids affect the bacterial cell membrane |
|
Definition
| by limiting the motion of phospholipid tails, thus stiffening the membrane |
|
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Term
| functions of membrane proteins |
|
Definition
-Structural support
-Detection of environmental signals
-Secretion of virulence factors and communication signals
-Ion transport and energy storage |
|
|
Term
| the types of molecules that require transporters |
|
Definition
| Polar molecules and charged molecules |
|
|
Term
| bacterial cell wall aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the cell wall does for the bacterial cell |
|
Definition
-confers shape and rigidity to the cell.
-Protects the cell membrane |
|
|
Term
| A disaccharide unit of glycan has... |
|
Definition
an attached peptide of four to six amino acids.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| PEPTIDOGLYCAN STRUCTURE (ALSO CALLED MUREIN) |
|
Definition
-Meshlike polymer of identical subunits forming long strands.
-Two alternating sugars:
--N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
--N- acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
-Amino acids
-These are glycan chains cross-linked w/ peptides of amino acids
[image] |
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|
Term
| the 2 alternating sugars in peptidoglycan |
|
Definition
-N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
-N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) |
|
|
Term
| composition of peptidoglycan |
|
Definition
These are glycan chains cross-linked w/ peptides of amino acids
-N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)
-N- acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
[image] |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the enzyme that cross-links the amino acids in peptidoglycan |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-Have multiple layers of peptidoglycan.
--3-20 layers
--Threaded by teichoic acids
-The S-layer is a tough surface layer |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| phosphodiester-linked chains of glycerol or ribitol that threads through and reinforces the cell wall in Gram-positive bacteria |
|
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Term
| what teichoic acid does for staining |
|
Definition
| Negatively charged cross-threads help retain basic dyes. |
|
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Term
| Teichoic acids are found in... |
|
Definition
| the Gram- positive cell wall |
|
|
Term
| Teichoic acids constst of... |
|
Definition
| glycerol or ribitol phosphodiester chains |
|
|
Term
| function of teichoic acids |
|
Definition
| to reinforce layers of peptidoglycan |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| function of lipoproteins in Gram-negative bacteria |
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Definition
| Connects outer membrane to peptidoglycan |
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Term
| why Gram-negative bacteria are more dangerous than Gram-positive |
|
Definition
| because the Gram-negative outer membrane confers defensive abilities and toxigenic properties on many pathogens, perhaps by way of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the surface of the outer membrane, since LPS act as endotoxin |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| cell component that is harmless as long as the pathogen remains intact; but when released by a lysed cell, endotoxin overstimulates host defenses, inducing potentially lethal endotoxic shock |
|
|
Term
| what happens when an endotoxin, like LPS, is released? |
|
Definition
| it overstimulates host defenses, inducing potentially lethal endotoxic shock; this causes a cytokine storm |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| found in many free-living bacteria and archaea, it is a crystalline layer of thick subunits consisting of protein or glycoprotein and may contribute to cell shape and help protect the cell from osmotic stress |
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Term
|
Definition
-possibly cell shape
-protecting the cell from osmotic stress
-forming biofilms
-binding to host cells
-swimming |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Crystalline layer of thick subunits consisting of protein or glycoprotein. |
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Term
| Within each domain, the DNA is supercoiled by ______. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| a type of acid found in mycobacteria |
|
Definition
| mycolic acids, which are a group of fatty acids |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| defensive fatty acid found in the complex multilayered envelope of mycobacteria |
|
|
Term
| mycolic acids are found in... |
|
Definition
| the complex multilayered envelope of mycobacteria |
|
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Term
| Mycolic acids linked to... |
|
Definition
| arabinogalactan (A polysaccharide) linked to peptidoglycan |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| mycolic acid layer or mycomembrane |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| the role of sterols in mycoplasma |
|
Definition
| may stabilize plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| Mycoplasmas are close relatives of... |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| some diseases caused by mycoplasmas |
|
Definition
-Chronic respiratory disease in chickens
-Primary atypical pneumonia in humans. “Walking pneumonia”
[image] |
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Term
| Light from the source is focused on specimen by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ magnifies specimen into a real image |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The real image is magnified by the ______ to produce a virtual image. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| suspected that stomach ulcers were caused by a bacterium Helicobacter pylori |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some of the macronutrients needed by microbes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the role of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, hydrogen, oxygen, and sulfur |
|
Definition
| make up the carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins of the cell |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the role of micronutrients |
|
Definition
| they are essential components of enzymes or cofactors |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-enriched
-selective
-differential |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| are complex media to which specific blood components are added |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| favor the growth of one organism over another, selecting some over another |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| exploit differences between two species that grow equally well; helps differentiate based on different properties, such as metabolism |
|
|
Term
| If a microbe is unculturable, how do we know it exists? |
|
Definition
-DNA detection
-observe in environment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Agent of Typhus Fever
-Endemic in flying squirrels
-Lice cause it to spread
-unculturable; it's an obligate intracellular bacteria |
|
|
Term
| how lice spread Rickettsia prowazekii |
|
Definition
1: suck blood
2: spread it thru feces
3: humans get infected |
|
|
Term
| symptoms of Rickettsia prowazekii may include... |
|
Definition
-headache
-rash
-high fever |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| specific nutrients not required by other species |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -Degrade organic compounds into smaller compounds for energy.
-Then reassemble to make cell constituents.
-CO2 released |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Reduce CO2 to make complex cell constituents |
|
|
Term
| different types of autoprophs |
|
Definition
-Photoautotrophs
-Chemolithoautotroph |
|
|
Term
| different types of heterotrophs |
|
Definition
-Photoheterotrophs
-Chemoheterotrophs aka organotrophs |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the absence of a TCA cycle, the carbon can end up as fermentation products, such as... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The use of chemical reactions powered by the absorption of light to yield energy |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Metabolism that yields energy from oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions without using light energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Lithotrophy
-Organotrophy |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The metabolic oxidation of inorganic compounds to yield energy and fix single-carbon compounds into biomass |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The metabolic oxidation of organic compounds to yield energy without absorption of light |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| chemoorganotrophy or chemoheterotrophy |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| CO2 is fixed and assembled into organic molecules |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Pre-formed organic molecules are acquired from outside, broken down for carbon, and the carbon reassembled to make biomass |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Light absorption captures energy |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Chemical electron donors are oxidized |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Inorganic molecules donate electrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Organic molecules donate electrons |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| gain of energy from light absorption with biosynthesis from pre-formed organic compounds |
|
|
Term
| Rhodospirillum rubrum can grow by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this stores energy in ATP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A membrane potential is generated when... |
|
Definition
| chemical energy is used to pump protons across cell membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the electrochemical potential formed by the H+ gradient plus the charge difference |
|
|
Term
| proton motive force aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1. Proton flow thru F0 rotor is driven by proton motive force. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2. Proton flow causes F1 to rotate. |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| they convert N2 into NH4+ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1. Nitrogenase fixes atmospheric N2 to ammonia (NH4+) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 2. Nitrifiers oxidize ammonia (NH4+) to generate energy. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| 3. Denitrifiers use oxidized forms, such as nitrate, as alternative e- acceptors. |
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some legumes Rhizobium grows in |
|
Definition
-Beans
-Lentils
-Peas
-Soybeans
-Peanuts |
|
|
Term
| benefits of Rhizobium infecting legume roots |
|
Definition
-provides the plant higher nitrogen availability/uptake
-Improved health of plant
-Lower cost for farmer
-Environmentally friendly / “Natural” |
|
|
Term
| an example of bacteria dividing asymmetrically |
|
Definition
| Hyphomicrobium divides by budding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rate of increase in cell numbers or biomass |
|
|
Term
| the growth rate is proportional to... |
|
Definition
| the population size at a given time |
|
|
Term
| If a cell divides by binary fission, the number of cells is proportional to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| equation for population growth by binary fission |
|
Definition
| Nt = N0 x 2n where...
Nt = total number of cells
N0 = original number of cells
n = number of rounds of binary fission |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number of rounds of binary fission |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Metabolically active/no increase in number of cells
-Adaptation; induce enzymes needed
-Length varies w/ species & conditions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Population doubles each generation
-Primary metabolites synthesized
-Balanced growth- all cellular constituents made at constant rates
-Most susceptible to antibiotics |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Growth curve horizontal
-Population growth ceases
-New cells made at same rate as old cells die (growth rate = death rate)
-Secondary metabolites are made at beginning |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Exponential
-99% of population dies
-Prolonged decline – 1% population mutates according to environment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| examples of primary metabolites |
|
Definition
-Amino acids
-Nucleic acids
-Simple lipids |
|
|
Term
| stage of bacterial growth where secondary metabolites are made |
|
Definition
| beginning of stationary phase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A biosynthetic product that is not an essential nutrient but enhances nutrient uptake or inhibits competing species (e.g., an antibiotic). |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| I think a biosynthetic product that is an essential nutrient |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| culture in which all cells in a population achieve a steady state, which allows detailed study of bacterial physiology |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| ensures logarithmic growth by constantly adding and removing equal amounts of culture media |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| complex, slime enclosed community of microbes growing on a solid surface |
|
|
Term
| a clinically important contributor to microbial disease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1. Attachment to monolayer by flagella |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 3. Exopolysaccharide (EPS) production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 5. Dissolution and dispersal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The ability of bacteria to sense the presence of other bacteria via secreted chemical signals called autoinducers |
|
|
Term
| Microcolonies communicate via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how microbes communicate with each other when forming biofilms |
|
Definition
-Small proteins that increase in concentration as microbes replicate.
-Released to environment
-Serves as signaling mechanism |
|
|
Term
| what happens after formation of monolayer, but before formation of microcolonies? |
|
Definition
| bacteria begin to coat surfaces with organic debris to which more cells can attach |
|
|
Term
| Exopolysaccharide (EPS) production includes production of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Polysaccharides and entrapped materials that form a thick extracellular matrix around the microbes in a biofilm
-it is sticky
-this increases the antibiotic resistance of residents of the biofilm |
|
|
Term
| cells may break free from the biofilm towers if... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| clinical relevance of biofilms |
|
Definition
-May be resistant to antibiotics and UV light.
-Forms on implanted medical devices such as hip implants and catheters.
-Forms on natural surfaces such as teeth. |
|
|
Term
| “normal” growth conditions for microbes |
|
Definition
-Sea level
-Temperature 20°C–40°C
-Neutral pH
-0.9% salt
-ample nutrients |
|
|
Term
| why regulating temperature is important |
|
Definition
-Enzymes have optimal temperature for function
-High temps destroy proteins
-Low temperatures solidify membranes |
|
|
Term
| the temperature preferred by Psychrophiles |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the temperature preferred by Mesophiles |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the temperature preferred by Thermophiles |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the temperature preferred by Hyperthermophiles (Extreme thermophiles) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hyperthermophiles (Extreme thermophiles) |
|
|
Term
| The general result of the Arrhenius equation |
|
Definition
| growth rate roughly doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature |
|
|
Term
| characteristics of PSYCHROPHILES |
|
Definition
-prefer temp of ~0°C – 20°C
-Enzymes adapted to function in cold temp.
-Membrane remains semi-fluid when cold (high levels of unsaturated fatty acids)
-Accumulate solutes to decrease freezing point |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of thermophiles and hyperthermophiles |
|
Definition
-prefer 40°C – 80°C and 65°C-121°C, respectively
-Enzymes are adapted to function in hot temp.
-Increased H bonds
-Less flexible polypeptides than in psychrophiles
-Numerous DNA binding proteins stabilize DNA |
|
|
Term
| example of a hyperthermophile |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| characteristics of Thermus aquaticus |
|
Definition
| -Can survive hot temperatures by utilizing heat-stable Taq DNA polymerase.
-Taq DNA polymerase is among the most widely used enzymes in biotechnology-over $100 million/year in sales. |
|
|
Term
| how Thermus aquaticus survives hot temperatures by... |
|
Definition
| utilizing heat-stable Taq DNA polymerase |
|
|
Term
| importance of Taq DNA polymerase |
|
Definition
| It is among the most widely used enzymes in biotechnology-over $100 million/year in sales. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Methanocaldococcus jannaschii |
|
|
Term
| Barophiles or piezophiles |
|
Definition
| organisms adapted to grow at pressures up to 1,000 atm or 14,600 psi but fail to grow at low pressures |
|
|
Term
| Growth at high pressure requires... |
|
Definition
| specially designed membranes and protein structures |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of barophiles |
|
Definition
-Many barophiles also survive other extreme conditions.
-How bacteria survive these high pressures is still a mystery.
-Increased hydrostatic pressure reduce membrane fluidity. |
|
|
Term
| cell membrane allows ______ to pass but NOT ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| membrane-channel proteins that allow water to traverse the membrane much faster than by diffusion |
|
|
Term
| how microbes alter the osmotic concentration of their cytoplasm in a hypotonic environment |
|
Definition
| they express pressure-sensitive channels in plasma membrane allow solutes to leave the cell |
|
|
Term
| how microbes alter the osmotic concentration of their cytoplasm in a hypertonic environment |
|
Definition
| they increase cellular osmotic concentration by synthesizing or importing solutes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organism that requires a high extracellular sodium chloride concentration for optimal growth |
|
|
Term
| how halophiles maintain a low internal concentration of sodium |
|
Definition
| they use ion pumps to excrete sodium and replace it with other cations such as potassium |
|
|
Term
| an example of a halophile |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some things that can be caused by Staphylococcus aureus |
|
Definition
-Minor skin infections (pimples/boils)
-Serious illness (pneumonia/meningitis/sepsis) |
|
|
Term
| some infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus |
|
Definition
-pneumonia
-infective endocarditis
-sepsis
-osteomyelitis
-menstrual toxic shock syndrome
-soft tissue infections
[image] |
|
|
Term
| example of a halotolerant bacterium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the organisms that benefit from oxygen |
|
Definition
| those that can use it as a TEA in the electron transport chain |
|
|
Term
| the cells that oxygen is toxic to |
|
Definition
| those that do not have enzymes capable of efficiently destroying reactive oxygen species (ROS) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| requires O2 at low conc. ( 2-10%) |
|
|
Term
| where microaerophiles grow in a standing test tube |
|
Definition
| middle, but closer to top |
|
|
Term
| 2 ways to culture anaerobes |
|
Definition
-anaerobe jar
-anaerobic chamber with glove ports
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sulfolobus
it's also a thermophile |
|
|
Term
| mechanism Sulfolobus has that might help it survive acidic environments |
|
Definition
| a proton extrusion mechanism that is still under investigation |
|
|
Term
| PHYSICAL AGENTS THAT CONTROL MICROBES |
|
Definition
-High Temperature
-Low Temperature
-Filtration
-UV light |
|
|
Term
| some ways to control microbial growth |
|
Definition
-sterilization
-disinfection
-antisepsis
-sanitation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| killing of all living organisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| killing or removal of pathogens from inanimate objects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| killing or removal of pathogens from the surface of living tissues |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reducing the microbial population to safe levels |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Deinococcus radiodurans |
|
Definition
-Has the greatest ability to survive
radiation of any known organism.
-Has exceptional capabilities
for repairing DNA and protein damage.
+ It accumulates manganese that can remove free radicals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A secreted molecule that induces quorum-sensing behavior in bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms & acellular agents too small to be seen by the unaided eye |
|
|
Term
| The limit of detection for the unaided human eye |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some exceptions/contradictions regarding the definition of a microbe |
|
Definition
| -Supersize microbial cells such as Thiomargarita namibiensis can grow to 0.7mm or larger, and some giant amoebas can be seen by the unaided human eye.
-Microbial communities such as mushrooms can easily be seen by the unaided human eye.
-Viruses are microorganisms but are not considered cells; rather they are nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -(1635–1703)
-Built the first compound microscope and used it to observe mold, fleas, and cork
-Published Micrographia
-Coined the term “cell” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| microscope that has 2 or more lenses that multiply their magnification in series |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-(1632–1723)
-Built single-lens magnifiers.
-First to observe single-celled microbes. He called them “small animals.”
-He also discovered that hot coffee reduced the amount of microbes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the concept of living creatures arising spontaneously without parents |
|
|
Term
| evidence that was believed to support the spontaneous generation theory |
|
Definition
Living organisms from non-living matter:
-Decaying meat “produced” maggots.
-Sand “produced” oysters and clams. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-(1626-1697)
-He challenged the spontaneous generation theory by analyzing the “production” of maggots and flies on decaying meat.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-(1729-1799)
-He challenged spontaneous generation theory by showing that a sealed flask of broth did not “spontaneously” gave rise to life (microbes).
-He also noted that an open flask of broth did give rise to life (microbes).
-Conclusions also demonstrated cellular fission of the microbes within the broth; showing microbes have “parents”.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Broth boiled, then cooled at room temp |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Broth boiled, then cooled at room temp |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-(1822-1895)
-His contributions to the science of microbiology and immunology earned him lasting fame.
-He showed that after boiling, the contents of a swan-necked flask remain free of microbial growth, despite access to air.
-He also showed that when the flasks were tilted or broken this lead to microbial growth (ie. broth had access to dust).
-He also discovered that microbes prefer one enantiomer over the other.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| -His contributions to the science of microbiology and immunology earned him lasting fame. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -He showed that after boiling, the contents of a swan-necked flask remain free of microbial growth, despite access to air. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -He also showed that when the flasks were tilted or broken this lead to microbial growth (ie. broth had access to dust). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -He also discovered that microbes prefer one enantiomer over the other. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -Built the first compound microscope and used it to observe mold, fleas, and cork |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -Built single-lens magnifiers. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -First to observe single-celled microbes. He called them “small animals.” |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -He also discovered that hot coffee reduced the amount of microbes. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -He challenged the spontaneous generation theory by analyzing the “production” of maggots and flies on decaying meat. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The theory that many diseases are caused by microbes |
|
|
Term
| Chain of infection in germ theory |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Distinct populations each grown from a single cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -(1843-1910)
-developed the first guidelines (postulates) to establish a link between a specific microbe & disease
-Studied the link between Bacillus anthracis and anthrax |
|
|
Term
| -developed the first guidelines (postulates) to establish a link between a specific microbe & disease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -Studied the link between Bacillus anthracis and anthrax |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| exception to Koch's 2nd postulate |
|
Definition
| Some pathogens, can’t be cultured. For example, viruses need a host cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| suspected that stomach ulcers were caused by a bacterium Helicobacter pylori |
|
|
Term
| A third of Europe’s population wiped out by... |
|
Definition
| Yersinia pestis, agent of bubonic plague |
|
|
Term
| Bubonic plague is spread by ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lady Mary Wortley Montagu |
|
Definition
| introduced smallpox inoculation-1717 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deliberately infected patients with matter from cowpox -1749-1823. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the first person to use medical statistics to demonstrate the significance of mortality due to disease; she's the founder of medical statistics. This was in the 1850's, during the Crimean War. |
|
|
Term
| the first person to use medical statistics to demonstrate the significance of mortality due to disease; she's the founder of medical statistics. This was in the 1850's, during the Crimean War. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what medical statistics proved |
|
Definition
| more people died of disease than from combat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-ordered doctors to wash their hands with chlorine, an antiseptic agent.
-Mortality rates fell-1847. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| discovered that Penicillium mold generated a substance that kills bacteria-1929. |
|
|
Term
| discovered that Penicillium mold generated a substance that kills bacteria-1929. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1856-1953
-among the first to study microbes in natural habitats.
-Discovered lithotrophs, which are organisms that feed solely on inorganic minerals
-Developed enrichment culture, which is the use of selective growth media that support certain classes of microbial metabolism while excluding others
-Built the Winogradsky column. This actually generates a voltage potential.
-showed the importance of bacteria in geochemical cycling |
|
|
Term
| -among the first to study microbes in natural habitats. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -Discovered lithotrophs, which are organisms that feed solely on inorganic minerals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -Developed enrichment culture, which is the use of selective growth media that support certain classes of microbial metabolism while excluding others |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| -Built the Winogradsky column. This actually generates a voltage potential. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organisms that feed solely on inorganic minerals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the use of selective growth media that support certain classes of microbial metabolism while excluding others |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A wetland model ecosystem in the form of a column
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sulfate-reducing bacteria |
|
|
Term
| showed the importance of bacteria in geochemical cycling |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-bacilli (rods)
-spirochetes
-cocci (spheres) |
|
|
Term
what bacteria shape is this?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what bacteria shape is this?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what bacteria shape is this?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| scanning electron microscopy (SEM) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transmission electron microscopy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an enlarged image of an object |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uses light and two or more lenses to magnify and resolve a sample |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| forms image using more than 2 lenses |
|
|
Term
| types of light microscopy |
|
Definition
-Bright-field
-Dark-field
-Phase-contrast
-Fluorescence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| virtual image seen by eye, magnified by objective and ocular lenses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bending of light as it passes through an object that slows its speed |
|
|
Term
| the use of immersion oil in microscopy |
|
Definition
| Immersion oil with a refractive index comparable to that of glass (n = 1.5) prevents light rays from bending away from the objective lens. |
|
|
Term
| advantage of Dark-field optics over bright-field microscopy |
|
Definition
| Allows the detection of very narrow cells (0.1 µm) that are unresolved by bright-field microscopy. |
|
|
Term
| Phase-contrast microscopy |
|
Definition
| exploits refractive differences between the cytoplasm and the surrounding medium or between different organelles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
uses fluorescence by a fluorophore to reveal specific cells or cell parts
This is where the specimen absorbs high energy light and emits (fluoresces) light of lower energy. Sometimes, the organism already has the right molecule. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chemical compounds that absorb/emit light of specific wavelengths. Can be a dye or protein. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Adding a stain/dye to the microbe itself |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does the specimen survive fixation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the charge of acidic dyes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the molecules acidic dyes bind to |
|
Definition
| those with positive charge, such as tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Color added to cells but not background. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Stains one kind of cell but not another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rigid structure that lies just outside the plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| peptidoglycan composed of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 4th step of Gram staining |
|
Definition
wash with ethanol for 20 seconds
Gram positive: purple
Gram negative: clear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Electrons are used instead of light beam. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Long, thick
-1-2/cell
-DNA transfer (Sex pili)
-Motility |
|
|
Term
| characteristics of fimbriae |
|
Definition
-Evenly distributed (or at poles)
-Short, thin, hair like
-Up to 1000/cell
-Attachment (Attachment pili) |
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae long and thick? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 1 or 2 pili or fimbriae per cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae used for DNA transfer? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae used for motility? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae short, thin, hair like? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are there up to 1000 pili or fimbriae per cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are pili or fimbriae used for attachment? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Adherence to surfaces
-Inhibits phagocytosis by macrophages |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| External helical filament whose rotary motor propels the cell |
|
|
Term
| functions of the flagellum |
|
Definition
| Swimming and swarming motility |
|
|
Term
| bacteria the flagellum is present in |
|
Definition
| Proteobacteria, such as E. coli |
|
|
Term
| 2 examples of bacteria moving without a flagellum |
|
Definition
-Via “fluid” or “currents”: blood, lymph, ocean currents, air currents etc.
-Via actin polymerization. Bacteria produce actin “tails,” which make it motile.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| defines the existence of a cell |
|
|
Term
| this defines the existence of a cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The cell membrane consists of... |
|
Definition
| a phospholipid bilayer, with hydrophobic fatty acid chains directed inward, away from water |
|
|
Term
| The bilayer contains stiffening agents, such as ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Half the membrane volume in bacteria consists of ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proton-driven ATP synthase |
|
|
Term
| some types of phospholipids that can occur |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| effect of kinked fatty acids on the cell membrane |
|
Definition
| make the membrane more fluid, improving function in colder environments |
|
|
Term
| effect of cyclicalizing in fatty acids on the cell membrane |
|
Definition
| forms a planar ring to decrease fluidity |
|
|
Term
| In eukaryotic membranes, the reinforcing agents are... |
|
Definition
| sterols, such as cholesterol |
|
|
Term
| molecules that can diffuse acrss the membrane |
|
Definition
| Small uncharged molecules, such as O2 and CO2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water diffusing across the membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the net movement of molecules across a membrane without energy expenditure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an energy requiring process that moves molecules against their electrochemical gradient |
|
|
Term
| group of prokaryotes with no cell wall |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Most bacteria use ______ for their cell wall. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Peptidoglycan is found only in... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the structure of the cross-linking in peptidoglycan |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The enzymes responsible for the synthesis of peptidoglycan make excellent targets for antibiotics because... |
|
Definition
| Peptidoglycan is unique to bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
is this Gram-positive or Gram-negative?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
outer membrane components that allow the passage of nutrients
they are also the site of antibiotic entry |
|
|
Term
| the site of antibiotic entry |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| region in bacteria where DNA is organized |
|
|
Term
| The nucleoid forms about ______ loops or domains. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Circular DNA strand that replicates independently
-can also carry unique genes, such as those needed for antibiotic resistance |
|
|
Term
| Mycolic acids provide the basis for... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what type of bacteria has this envelope structure?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How could pathogenicity be influenced by the M. tuberculosis capsule? |
|
Definition
-makes it attach to the lung tissue
-makes it evade immune defenses |
|
|
Term
| the importance of a bacterial capsule |
|
Definition
1: attachment to other cells
2: evasion of immune system |
|
|
Term
| capsule composed primarily of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| type of bacteria that lacks cell walls |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| type of bacteria that can not synthesize peptidoglycan |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the smallest bacteria capable of self-reproduction (0.3μm) |
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Definition
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Term
| some things members of genus Mycoplasma lack |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
| how the cell membrane in mycoplasma is different |
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Definition
| it's 3-layered, thus thicker |
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|
Term
what type of bacteria is this?
[image] |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| Nutrients a microbe cannot make for itself, but must gather from its environment |
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Term
| what microbes do when essential nutrients are plentiful |
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Definition
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Term
| what microbes do when essential nutrients are scarce |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Nutrients needed in large quantities |
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Term
| Six macronutrients—______—make up the carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins of the cell. |
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Definition
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Term
| the role of Mg, Fe, and K |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Nutrients needed in small quantities |
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Term
| is it possible for a medium to be more than 1 type? |
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Definition
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Term
| are most microbes culturable or unculturable? |
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Definition
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Term
| amount of microbes that we don't know how to grow in the lab |
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Definition
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Term
| why so many microbes can't be cultured |
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Definition
| because they adapted so well to their natural habitat |
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Term
| Rickettsia prowazekii grows only in... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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|
Term
| obligate intracellular bacteria |
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Definition
| requires a host cell to survive, thus unculturable |
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Term
| why some bacteria can't be cultured |
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Definition
| consequence of evolution and the organism’s natural growth environment |
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Term
| All of Earth’s life-forms are based on... |
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Definition
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Term
autotrophy or heterotrophy?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
autotrophy or heterotrophy?
[image] |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| 2 types of energy storage |
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Definition
-chemical
-electrical potential |
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Term
| a way to store energy chemically |
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Definition
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Term
| a way to store energy by way of electrical potential |
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Definition
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Term
| this releases energy in ATP |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) + Energy + Phosphate |
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Term
| the charge inside the cell when there's a membrane potential |
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Definition
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Term
| Nitrogen is a ______nutrient. |
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Definition
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Term
| Nitrogen gas in the atmosphere (N2) must be converted into... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| For nitrogen to be used for growth, it must first be... |
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Definition
| “fixed,” or converted to ammonium ions (NH4+) |
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Term
| what microbes use NH4+ for |
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Definition
| to make amino acids and other nitrogenous compounds needed for growth |
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Term
|
Definition
| Grow symbiotically within root nodule cells of legumes |
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Term
|
Definition
| reproduction where one parent cell splits into two equal daughter cells |
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Term
| examples of secondary metabolites |
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Definition
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|
Term
| stage of bacterial growth where bacteria are most susceptible to antibiotics |
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Definition
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Term
| example of a natural chemostat |
|
Definition
The human GI tract
new nutrients are always arriving from the throat while equal amounts of bacterial culture exit in fecal waste |
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Term
| are most bacteria free-floating or attached to solid surface? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| the biofilm that forms on teeth |
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Term
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Definition
| organisms that inhabit environments outside the "normal" conditions |
|
|
Term
| can microbes regulate their own temperature? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| peak growth rate increases ______ with temperature and obeys the ______ equation. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| why the psychrophile membrane remains fluid at cold temp |
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Definition
| high levels of unsaturated fatty acids |
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Term
| how psychrophiles decrease freezing point |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Novel compounds made by members of the polar microbiome are screened for... |
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Definition
| anticancer and antimicrobial potential |
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Term
| how the DNA is stabilized in thermophiles and hyperthermophiles |
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Definition
| Numerous DNA binding proteins stabilize DNA |
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Term
| air pressure at Sea Level |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Increased hydrostatic pressure ______ membrane fluidity. |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| A solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than the microbe |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| A solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than the microbe |
|
|
Term
| what happens to a cell in a hypertonic solution? |
|
Definition
| Water leaves cell and bacteria shrink and die |
|
|
Term
| what happens to a cell in a hypotonic solution? |
|
Definition
| Water enters cell and bacteria swell, burst, and die |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A membrane that is permeable to some substances but impermeable to other substances |
|
|
Term
| semipermeable membrane aka... |
|
Definition
| selectively permeable membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they help protect the cell from osmotic stress |
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|
Term
| Halophiles prefer a (high or low) internal concentration of sodium |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| is Halobacterium bacterial or archaeral? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| where in the human body Staphylococcus aureus is found |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| amount of people that carry Staphylococcus aureus |
|
Definition
| 20% of population are carriers |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| can tolerate relatively high salinity |
|
|
Term
| the halotolerance of Staphylococcus aureus |
|
Definition
| Can be cultured in media up to 10% NaCl |
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Term
|
Definition
| Grows in presence of atmospheric oxygen (O2)( 20%) |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Grows in the absence of O2 |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| does not require O2 but grows better with it |
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Term
|
Definition
| grows equally well with or without O2 |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where obligate aerobes grow in a standing test tube |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| where obligate anaerobes grow in a standing test tube |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| where facultative anaerobes grow in a standing test tube |
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Definition
| everywhere, but mostlytop half |
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|
Term
| where aerotolerant anaerobes grow in a standing test tube |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| The majority of enzymes function between pH... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the combination of two histological stains: hematoxylin and eosin. The hematoxylin stains cell nuclei blue, and eosin stains the extracellular matrix and cytoplasm pink, with other structures taking on different shades, hues, and combinations of these colors. |
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|
Term
| bacterium that grows by photoheterotrophy |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| grows and gives a "fried egg" appearance on agar |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What do Pre-killing "S" strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae do to the host? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| R and S colonies isolated from tissue of dead mouse |
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Term
| difference between conjugation and transformation |
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Definition
| Transformation is movement of “free DNA” into a live cell. Conjugation requires two live cells physically contacting each other. |
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Term
|
Definition
| an enzyme that nicks DNA to relax it to allow for its movement from one bacterium to another in the conjugation process. One DNA strand is transferred. The donor also keeps a strand for itself so it doesn’t lose the genetic information. |
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|
Term
| size of PROKARYOTIC GENOMES |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
1: The two cells are brought together by the pilus on the donor.
2: The two cells are brought closer together by the pilus on the donor.
3: Relaxase assists in the DNA transfer by nicking one DNA strand to relax it to allow for its movement from one bacterium to another.
4: the recipient bacteria now becomes a donor.
[image] |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| a group of genes that exist in tandem with each other, situated from head to tail. The entire operon is controlled by a single regulatory sequence located in front of the first gene. |
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|
Term
| The entire operon is controlled by... |
|
Definition
| a single regulatory sequence located in front of the first gene. |
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Term
|
Definition
a collection of genes or operons with a unified biochemical purpose. They can occur on different parts of the chromosome, but they're regulated by the same regulatory protein.
[image] |
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Term
|
Definition
-Usually single proteins
-Cleave one strand of DNA |
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Term
|
Definition
-Have multiple subunits
-Cleave both strands of DNA (“ds break”) |
|
|
Term
| ______ is targeted by quinolone antibiotics |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how type I topoisomerase supercoils DNA |
|
Definition
1: Topoisomerase I cleaves one strand of a double helix, holds on to both ends, and . . .
2: . . . passes the other, intact strand through the break and re-ligates the strand.
3: The helix winds in this region, resulting in one less negative supercoil.
[image] |
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|
Term
| how type II topoisomerase supercoils DNA |
|
Definition
1: GyrB grabs one section of double-stranded DNA (represented by cylinder).
2: GyrA introduces double-strand break in this section (cylinder) and holds the two ends apart while remaining covalently attached to the DNA.
3: GyrA ATPase passes the intact double-stranded section through the double-strand break.
4: GyrA re-joins the cleaved DNA and opens at the other end to allow the strand that has passed through to exit.
[image] |
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Term
| how bacterial DNA replicates |
|
Definition
1. Replication begins at origin.
2. Replication bubble forms. Replication forks progress in opposite directions.
3. One strand at each fork is synthesized continuously 5′ to 3′.
4. Second strand at each fork is synthesized discontinuously in Okazaki fragments 5′ to 3′.
5. Replication ends at terminus.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| 2 molecules that regulate DNA replication in E. coli |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| initiates replication in E. coli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inhibits replication in E. coli |
|
|
Term
| SeqA has an affinity for... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ bind to 9-bp repeats upstream of the origin (oriC). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DnaA-ATP complexes bind to ______ upstream of the origin (oriC). |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Binding of DnaA-ATP complexes causes DNA to... |
|
Definition
| prepare for being melted open by the helicase (DnaB). |
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Term
|
Definition
| the helicase that melts open DNA in E. coli |
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Term
|
Definition
| The main replication polymerase in E. coli |
|
|
Term
| DNA Pol III can also scan for... |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Mismatching of bases causes... |
|
Definition
| cleavage of the phosphodiester bond on the mismatched base (exonuclease activity). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cleavage of the phosphodiester bond on the mismatched base
Once removed, elongation resumes. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| cells use this to remove RNA primers |
|
|
Term
| WHAT HAPPENS TO THE RNA PRIMERS in bacteria? |
|
Definition
1: To remove RNA primers, cells use RNase H.
2: A DNA Pol I enzyme then synthesizes a DNA patch using the 3′ OH end of the preexisting DNA fragment as a priming site.
3: Finally, DNA ligase repairs the phosphodiester nick using energy from NAD (in bacteria) or ATP (in eukaryotes). |
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Term
|
Definition
| In terminating DNA replication, this catalyzes a breaking and re-joining event that resolves the link. |
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|
Term
| how DNA replication in bacteria is terminated |
|
Definition
1: Replication forms a linked catenane of sister chromosomes.
2: XerCD passes linked chromosomes through each other, forming a catenane.
3: Topoisomerase IV catalyzes a breaking and re-joining event that resolves the link.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of plasmids |
|
Definition
-smaller than chromosomes
-Found in bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotic microbes
-Circular
-Separate Ori
-Primarily encode genes for survival |
|
|
Term
| What are some examples of genes that plasmids might carry? |
|
Definition
-antibiotic resistance
-pathogenesis
-environmental survival |
|
|
Term
| advantage of plasmid conferring antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
| with this being on a plasmid, bacteria can quickly replicate and produce this as needed |
|
|
Term
| advantage of plasmid conferring environmental survival |
|
Definition
| this helps it survive in environments it’s usually not in |
|
|
Term
| tricks plasmids have to ensure their inheritance |
|
Definition
-Low-copy-number plasmids segregate equally to daughter cells.
-High-copy-number plasmids segregate randomly to daughter cells. |
|
|
Term
| some conditions plasmids are advantageous under |
|
Definition
-Resistance to antibiotics and toxic metals
-Pathogenesis
-Symbiosis |
|
|
Term
| how restriction enzymes are named |
|
Definition
| their names reflect the genus and species of the source organism |
|
|
Term
| how recombinant DNA molecules are formed |
|
Definition
1. Plasmid and foreign DNA are cut with a restriction endonuclease (EcoRI) to produce identical cohesive ends.
2. Cut vector and foreign DNA fragments are mixed. Cohesive ends anneal.
3. DNA ligase seals the nicks.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how bacteria are artificially manipulated to undergo transformation |
|
Definition
| by perturbing the membrane by chemical (CaCl2) or electrical (electroporation) methods |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| subject (a system, moving object, or process) to an influence tending to alter its normal or regular state or path |
|
|
Term
| how CaCl2 enables a bacterium to undergo transformation |
|
Definition
| it alters the membrane, making these cells chemically competent so that DNA can pass |
|
|
Term
| In a natural environment, what would be the advantage of a bacteria being competent? |
|
Definition
| enhances survival by being able to acquire the necessary genes |
|
|
Term
| the DNA taken in by the transformasome complex |
|
Definition
| ssDNA; it takes in one strand while degrading the other |
|
|
Term
| The process of transformation in competent bacteria begins with... |
|
Definition
| the synthesis of a signaling molecule (competence factor, CF) |
|
|
Term
| The process of transformation in competent bacteria concludes with... |
|
Definition
| the import of a single-stranded DNA strand through a transformasome complex |
|
|
Term
| how Gram positive bacteria undergo transformation |
|
Definition
1. Precursor to competence factor (CF) is made and cleaved, and active CF is secreted.
2. As cell numbers rise, external CF level increases and activates ComD sensor kinase.
3. Phosphate from ComD is transferred to ComE. ComE-P stimulates sigma factor H (SigH) transcription.
4. SigH directs transcription of transformasome components.
5. Transformasome binds extracellular DNA. One strand is transported; one strand is degraded.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Competence in Gram positive bacteria is generated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when Gram-negative bacteria are competent |
|
Definition
| Either they are always competent or they become competent when starved. |
|
|
Term
| Why is gene exchange limited between genera of Gram-negative bacteria? |
|
Definition
| because transformation in most Gram-negative species is sequence specific |
|
|
Term
| 2 ways genes can be transferred between bacteria |
|
Definition
-transformation
-conjugation |
|
|
Term
| GENE TRANSFER BY CONJUGATION requires... |
|
Definition
| the presence of special transferable plasmids |
|
|
Term
| transferrable plasmids that are transferred by conjugation usually contain... |
|
Definition
| all the genes needed for pilus formation and DNA export |
|
|
Term
| example of a gene needed for pilus formation and DNA export |
|
Definition
| E. coli fertility factor (F) |
|
|
Term
| The relaxosome complex is composed of... |
|
Definition
| TraH, TraI (the helicase/ endonuclease), TraJ, and TraK |
|
|
Term
| the helicase in gene transfer by conjugation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the endonuclease in gene transfer by conjugation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Relaxase nicks DNA at oriT (nic site) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the ssDNA moves through the pore into the recipient |
|
Definition
| The 5′ end of the nick will move through the pore and remain attached to the membrane while the rest of the single-stranded DNA passes into the recipient. |
|
|
Term
| example of DNA transfer From Human to Bacteria |
|
Definition
| Neisseria gonorrhoeae contain human-derived sequences. |
|
|
Term
| what Agrobacterium tumefaciens does to host plants |
|
Definition
-Invades crown, stems, sometimes roots of many plants.
-Transform infected plant cells into tumors. |
|
|
Term
| how Agrobacterium tumefaciens causes crown gall disease in plants |
|
Definition
-Bacteria enter plants through wound/injured plant cells. They detect signals from “wound compounds”
-Transfers Ti plasmid to plant.
-Gene stimulates plant hormone production and cell division |
|
|
Term
| treatments for CROWN GALL DISEASE |
|
Definition
-Destroy infected plant
-Prune infected stem(s)
-Treat roots with control bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the process in which bacteriophages carry host DNA from one cell to another |
|
|
Term
| 2 basic types of transduction |
|
Definition
-Generalized transduction
-Specialized transduction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can transfer any gene from a donor to a recipient cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can transfer only a few closely linked genes between cells |
|
|
Term
| how generalized transduction occurs |
|
Definition
1. P22 phage DNA infects a host cell and makes subunit components for more phage.
2. DNA is packaged into capsid heads. Some capsids packages host DNA.
3. New phage assembly is completed.
4. Cell lyses; phage is released.
5. Transducing phage particle injects host DNA into new cell, where it may recombine into the chromosome.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| examples of mutagenic agents |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Salmonella defective in hisG |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Chief detoxifying organ of the human body
-Chemically modify foreign substances |
|
|
Term
| how the modified Ames test is conducted |
|
Definition
1: The potential mutagen, his-mutant bacteria, and liver homogenate are combined and mixed with agar.
2: The combination is poured into a petri plate.
3: If the liver extract enzymes act on the test compound and the metabolites produced are mutagenic, then increasing numbers of His+ revertants will be observed with increasing doses of mutagen. If the compound is not mutagenic, few relevant colonies will be seen on any plate. [image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The methyl-directed mismatch repair proteins (and genes) |
|
|
Term
| A high mutation rate results in... |
|
Definition
| strains that are defective in certain Mut proteins. |
|
|
Term
| how methyl mismatch repair works |
|
Definition
1. MutS binds DNA mismatch.
2. MutS draws MutHL to the site to form MutHLS complex.
3. MutHLS complex causes looping
4. MutH cleaves the unmethylated strand
[image] |
|
|
Term
| NUCLEOTIDE EXCISION REPAIR |
|
Definition
| An endonuclease removes a patch of single-stranded DNA containing damaged bases. New, correctly base-paired DNA is synthesized by DNA polymerase I. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The nucleotide excision repair proteins (and genes) |
|
|
Term
| how nucleotide excision repair works |
|
Definition
1: UvrA & B form a complex that binds to damaged DNA
2: UvrA bends the DNA.
3: UvrA gets ejected.
4: UvrB recruits UvrC
5: UvrC cleaves at sites that flank the damage
6: UvrD has helicase activity that strips away the damaged DNA
7: DNA Pol I fills the gap.
8: DNA ligase seals the new DNA to the 5′ end of the preexisting strand.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| transcription coupled repair |
|
Definition
| mechanism by which polymerases that stall during transcription can recruit Uvr proteins |
|
|
Term
| when Error-prone repair pathways operate |
|
Definition
| only when damage is so severe that the cell has no other choice but to mutate or die |
|
|
Term
| SOS (“SAVE OUR SHIP”) REPAIR |
|
Definition
I think this is another name for Error-prone repair pathways
-Induced by extensive DNA damage.
-Polymerase actions are “sloppy” because they lack the capacity for proofreading.
-However, they will replicate “through anything” to have a chance at survival.
-This is not a single mechanism but a collaborative effort. |
|
|
Term
| Polymerase actions in SOS (“SAVE OUR SHIP”) REPAIR are “sloppy” because... |
|
Definition
| they lack the capacity for proofreading. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a protein that will regularly monitor the level of single stranded DNA. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a protein that prevents DNA repair gene transcription (repressor) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During extensive DNA damage |
|
|
Term
| During extensive DNA damage,... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some SOS proteins that are synthesized |
|
Definition
-Pol IV
-Pol V
-these are both “sloppy” polymerases |
|
|
Term
| a side effect that may occur as a result of SOS repair |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of a stress pathway triggering SOS repair and resulting in something bad |
|
Definition
-Many humans carry Staphylococcus aureus in their nasopharynx.
-Competing bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae) can destroy Staph. aureus DNA, evidently by way of toxic compounds.
-SOS response is triggered.
-The SOS response activates resident phages (viruses) of Staph. aureus! Staph. aureus is killed…but Strep. pneumoniae survive… |
|
|
Term
| the light source in the Hawaiian Bobtailed Squid |
|
Definition
| The bacteria Aliivibrio fischeri living within the squid produce the light. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the accumulation of a secreted small molecule called an autoinducer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A secreted molecule that induces quorum-sensing behavior in bacteria |
|
|
Term
| the regulatory molecule the autoinducer binds to in Alliivibrio fischeri |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| binds to LuxR in Alliivibrio fischeri to activate transcription of luciferase (bioluminescence) |
|
|
Term
| how quorum sensing works in Alliivibrio fischeri |
|
Definition
1. The LuxI protein synthesizes an acyl homoserine lactone autoinducer (AI).
2. AI diffuses into medium and accumulates.
3. At threshold concentration, AI diffuses into cell and binds LuxR, which activates lux + transcription.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| The ______ system of Alliivibrio fischeri mediates that organism’s bioluminescence. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Increased transcription of target genes caused by an inducer binding to a repressor and preventing repressor-operator binding |
|
|
Term
| Activators bind to specific ligand and touch... |
|
Definition
| RNA polymerases sitting near promoters |
|
|
Term
| sensor kinases in the cell membrane |
|
Definition
-Bind to environmental signals
-Regulate cytoplasmic events via phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| how two-component signal transduction systems sense the external environment |
|
Definition
1. Sensor kinase detects condition outside the cell.
2. Signal triggers (or prevents) autophosphorylation.
3. Phosphate is transferred to a response regulator in the cytoplasm. Regulator binds DNA and either stimulates or represses the target genes.
4. A phosphatase removes the phosphate and down-regulates the system.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Response regulator in the cytoplasm |
|
Definition
-Takes phosphate from sensor
-Binds chromosome, which alters transcription rate for gene(s) |
|
|
Term
| how a cell absorbs and processes lactose |
|
Definition
1: A dedicated lactose permease uses proton motive force to move lactose (and a proton) into the cell.
2: The enzyme beta-galactosidase (LacZ) cleaves the disaccharide into its component parts (galactose and glucose) or alters the linkage between the monosaccharides to produce allolactose, an important chemical needed to induce the genes that encode the pathway associated with the lac operon.
[image] |
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Term
| how the LacZYA OPERON is organized |
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Definition
| lacI and lacZYA are separate transcriptional units, each with its own promoter.
[image] |
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Term
| how the LacZYA OPERON is repressed in the absence of lactose |
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Definition
The Lacl tetrameric repressor binds to specific DNA sites (the operator: lacO).
[image] |
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Term
| how the LacZYA OPERON is induced in the presence of lactose |
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Definition
Inducer (lactose converted to allolactose) binds LacI repressor. This reduces LacI affinity for lacO, and transcription of the operon occurs.
[image] |
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Term
| induction of the the LacZYA OPERON can be enhanced by... |
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Definition
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Term
| Diauxic growth results when... |
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Definition
| both carbon sources, lactose and glucose, are present |
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Term
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Definition
| A biphasic cell growth curve caused by depletion of the favored carbon source and a metabolic switch to the second carbon source |
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Term
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Definition
| when an operon enabling the catabolism of one nutrient is repressed by the presence of a more favorable nutrient |
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Term
| the protein yielded by LacZ |
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Definition
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Term
| what removes the repressor from the lac operon? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is happening at the time point circled in red? [image] |
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Definition
-this is when the repressor gets removed, so it takes time
-this is basically where E. coli is switching gears |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability of glucose to cause metabolic changes that prevent the cellular uptake of less favorable carbon sources that could cause unnecessary induction. |
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Term
| how lactose import is inhibited in the presence of glucose |
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Definition
-Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) “feeds” phosphate into the PTS, which relays the phosphate to glucose during transport.
-Glucose moves from protein IIC to IIB, which transfers a phosphate from IIA to glucose.
-Unphosphorylated IIAGlc inhibits LacY (lactose permease). [image] |
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Term
| how the absence of glucose allows the cell to take in lactose |
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Definition
-In the absence of glucose, phosphorylated IIA accumulates and LacY is free to transport lactose.
-In the absence of glucose, the phosphorylated forms of glucose-specific IIAGlc and IIBCGlc accumulate and cannot inhibit LacY, which transports lactose
-LacY transports lactose, and the lac operon is induced. |
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Term
| The energy to build cells comes from chemical reactions such as... |
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Definition
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Term
| some complex carbon sources for catabolism in microbes |
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Definition
-polysacs
-lipids
-peptides
-complex aromatic molecules |
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Term
| some examples of polysacs |
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Definition
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Term
| Peptides are hydrolyzed to amino acids and then broken down to ______. |
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Definition
| acetate, amines, and other molecules |
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Term
| ______ are broken down to acetate and other molecules. |
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Definition
| Complex aromatic molecules |
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Term
| Complex aromatic molecules are broken down to ______. |
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Definition
| acetate and other molecules |
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Term
| ______ are broken down by specific enzymes to disaccharides and then to monosaccharides such as glucose. |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ are converted to pyruvate, which releases acetyl groups. |
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Definition
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Term
| Glucose and sugar acids are converted to ______, which releases acetyl groups. |
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Definition
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Term
| Glucose and sugar acids are converted to pyruvate, which releases ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ are also the breakdown products of fatty acids, amino acids, and complex aromatic plant materials such as lignin. |
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Definition
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Term
| Acetyl groups or acetate are also the breakdown products of ______. |
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Definition
| fatty acids, amino acids, and complex aromatic plant materials such as lignin |
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| fermentation products: acetate, ethanol, lactate, CO2, H2 |
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Definition
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| The major polysaccharide of lettuce and tomatoes is ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| polysaccharide utilization locus (PUL) |
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Definition
| set of genes used to digest xyloglucan |
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| Maltose sensor and regulator: transcriptional activation of the sus operon. |
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| the most common form of glycolysis |
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Definition
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Term
| the 2 stages of the 10 distinct reactions in the EMP pathway |
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Definition
1: Glucose Activation Stage
2: Energy Yielding Stage |
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Term
| Peptidoglycan precursor in the EMP pathway |
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Definition
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Term
| Protein precursor (cysteine, glycine, serine) in EMP pathway |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ connects with the TCA cycle through pyruvate breakdown to acetyl-CoA and CO2. |
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Definition
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Term
| Glucose catabolism connects with the TCA cycle through ______ to acetyl-CoA and CO2. |
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Definition
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Term
| Glucose catabolism connects with the TCA cycle through pyruvate breakdown to ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| In the TCA cycle, ______ can be catabolized to CO2 and H2O. |
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Definition
| products of sugar breakdown |
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Term
| the TCA cycle generates... |
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Definition
| electron carriers NADH & FADH2 |
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Term
| Glucose catabolism generates ATP through... |
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Definition
| substrate-level phosphorylation and the electron transport system’s pumping of H+ ions to drive the ATP synthase. |
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Term
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Definition
glycolysis
glucose --> 2 pyruvate |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| 4 e- carried via 2 NADH + 2H+ |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 pyruvate --> 2 acetyl-CoA |
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Definition
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Definition
| 4 e- carried via 2 NADH + 2H+ |
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Definition
| 16 e- carried via 6 NADH + 6H+ and 2 FADH2 |
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Definition
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Definition
| oxidative phosphorylation |
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Definition
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Definition
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| The ED pathway enables intestinal bacteria to... |
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Definition
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Term
| the ED pathway starts off with... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| sugars with acidic side chains |
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Term
| the ED pathway starts off with glucose or sugar acids and forms... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a sugar acid found in intestinal mucus |
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Term
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Definition
| gluconate from mucus secretions. |
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Term
| ______ actually induces colonic production of the mucus. |
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Definition
| Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron |
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Term
| Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron actually induces... |
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Definition
| colonic production of the mucus. |
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Term
| what happens to 6-phosphogluconate in the ED pathway? |
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Definition
| it gets dehydrated and cleaved into Pyruvate and Glyceraldedyde-3-P |
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Term
| Glyceraldedyde-3-P can enter the EMP pathway to form... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-NADH transfers electrons to the electron transport chain
-NADPH is used for biosynthesis; Enzymes for amino acid biosynthesis use NADPH |
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Term
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Definition
| it transfers electrons to the electron transport chain |
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Term
| The PPP pathway, like the ______, involves glucose 6-phosphate losing electrons to form NADPH. |
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Definition
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Term
| The PPP pathway, like the ED pathway, involves ______ losing electrons to form NADPH. |
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Definition
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Term
| The PPP pathway, like the ED pathway, involves glucose 6-phosphate losing electrons to form ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| ______, w/loss of C as CO2 generates ribulose-5-phosphate, which in turn produces a series of sugars, which are precursor metabolites. |
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Definition
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Term
| Oxidation by NADP+, w/loss of ______ generates ribulose-5-phosphate, which in turn produces a series of sugars, which are precursor metabolites. |
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Definition
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Term
| Oxidation by NADP+, w/loss of C as CO2 generates ______, which in turn produces a series of sugars, which are precursor metabolites. |
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Definition
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Term
| Oxidation by NADP+, w/loss of C as CO2 generates ribulose-5-phosphate, which in turn produces... |
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Definition
| a series of sugars (precursor metabolites) |
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Term
| how the electron transport chain generates proton motive force |
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Definition
| It accept electrons from NADH and FADH2 and passes electrons from one carrier to the next. |
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Term
| In the electron transport chain, energy is released as... |
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Definition
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Term
| The three important uses of the PMF for a prokaryote |
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Definition
-ATP synthesis
-active transport
-flagella rotation |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| terminal electron acceptor |
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Term
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Definition
| uses of proton motive force |
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Term
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Definition
ATP synthase
(ATP synthesis) |
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Term
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Definition
active transport
(one mechanism) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
a form of anaerobic catabolism that uses endogenous, organic electron acceptors
it produces ATP |
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Term
| how fermentation helps produce Swiss cheese |
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Definition
| 1: Lactobacillus ferments the milk sugar, lactose, into lactic acid.
2: Propionibacterium freudenreichii converts lactate to propionate, acetate, and CO2.
Concurrent fermentation of lactate and aspartate generates additional CO2, increasing the size and number of eyes. |
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Term
| how the Phenol red broth test detects fermentation |
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Definition
Phenol red turns yellow at low pH (acidic products from fermentation). Durham tube collects gas.
[image] |
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Term
| how Geobacter helps remove uranium from water |
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Definition
| It oxidizes acetate into CO2, reducing uranium in the process. The reduced uranium precipitates out of the water. |
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Term
| Sulfolobus is found in... |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| the harnessing of photo-excited electrons to power cell growth |
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Term
| composition of Bacteriorhodopsin |
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Definition
-seven alpha helices that span the membrane in alternating directions and...
-surround a molecule of retinal, which is linked to...
-a lysine residue
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| what happens when BACTERIORHODOPSIN absorbs light? |
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Definition
| 1: A photon is absorbed by retinal, which shifts its configuration from trans to cis.
2: Change causes proton pick-up.
3: The relaxation back to the trans form is coupled to pumping 1H+ across the membrane. |
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Term
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Definition
| polysaccharide utilization locus |
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Term
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Definition
| starch utilization system |
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Term
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Definition
| Metabolic cooperation between two different species |
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Term
| types of GENETIC MATERIAL TRANSFER |
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Definition
-vertical transmission
-horizontal transmission |
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Term
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Definition
| genetic material transfer from parent to offspring |
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Term
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Definition
| Transfer of small pieces of DNA from one cell to another |
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Term
| Bacterial Chromosomes Are Compacted into a... |
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Definition
|
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Term
| the normal pH of the E. coli cell |
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Definition
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Term
| DNA is the second-largest molecule in the bacterial cell (only ______ is larger) |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| series of protein-bound domains that bacteria pack their DNA into |
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Term
| Studied Streptococcus pneumoniae in mice |
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Definition
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Term
| Hypothesized that the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae could “transfer information” to each other. |
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Definition
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Term
| What does the "Smooth (S)" strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae do to the host? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What does the "Rough (R)" strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae do to the host? |
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Definition
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Term
| What does the combination of killed "(S)" and live (R) strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae do to the host? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| mouse contracts pneumonia |
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Term
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Definition
| S colonies isolated from tissue of dead mouse |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| R colonies isolated from tissue |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| no colonies isolated from tissue |
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Term
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Definition
| living R cells plus heat-killed S cells |
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Term
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Definition
| mouse contracts pneumonia |
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Term
| shape of most bacterial genomes |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Horizontal gene transfer requiring cell contact. Genes transferred sequentially. |
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Term
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Definition
| movement of “free DNA” into a live cell |
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Term
| how bacteria come together to begin conjugation |
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Definition
-The two cells are brought together by the pilus on the donor.
-The two cells then come closer together by the pilus on the donor. |
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Term
| what happens at the completion of conjugation? |
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Definition
| the recipient bacteria now becomes a donor |
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Term
| amount of non-coding DNA in prokaryotic genomes |
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Definition
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Term
| amount of non-coding DNA in human genome |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| units of information composed of a sequence of DNA nucleotides |
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Term
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Definition
[image]
the yellow is a single gene, but the green is an operon |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA that codes for one protein |
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Term
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Definition
| RNA that codes for more than one protein |
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Term
| single gene produces monocistronic or polycistronic RNA? |
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Definition
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Term
| operon produces monocistronic or polycistronic RNA? |
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Definition
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Term
| A supercoil can be introduced into a double-stranded, circular DNA molecule by... |
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Definition
(1) cleaving both strands at one site in the molecule
(2) passing an intact part of the molecule between ends of the cut site
(3) reconnecting the free ends.
[image] |
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Term
| the 2 types of supercoils |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| organisms that positively supercoil their DNA |
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Definition
| archaeans living in acid at high temperature |
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Term
| why archaeans living in acid at high temperature have positively supercoiled DNA |
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Definition
| to make it harder to denature, because it takes excess energy to separate overwound DNA |
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Term
| organisms that negatively supercoil their DNA |
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Definition
-bacteria
-archaea
-eukaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| the 2 types of topoisomerases |
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Definition
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Term
| example of type II topoisomerase |
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Definition
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Term
| DNA gyrase is targeted by ______ antibiotics |
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Definition
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Term
| Topoisomerase I relaxes a negatively supercoiled DNA molecule by... |
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Definition
| introducing a single-strand nick. |
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Term
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Definition
| how spatial features of an object are connected to each other |
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Term
| where topoisomerases get their name |
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Definition
| they change the topology of DNA |
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Term
| how gyrase supercoils DNA |
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Definition
1: Gyrase grabs one section and introduces a ds break.
2: It then passes the intact strand through the ds break. |
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Term
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Definition
| where DNA replication begins |
|
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Term
| does E. coli methylate its own DNA? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| does freshly made E. coli DNA have methyl groups? |
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Definition
| just after replication, there is a short period before methyl groups can be added to new strand. |
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Term
| As the cell grows, DnaA levels ______. |
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Definition
|
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Term
| DnaA-ATP complexes bind to 9-bp repeats upstream of the ______. |
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Definition
|
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Term
| E. coli has how many DNA polymerases? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| all the DNA polymerases in E. coli catalyze DNA synthesis in what direction? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| The main replication polymerase in E. coli |
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Definition
|
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Term
| this DNA polymerase can scan for mismatched bases in E. coli |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| After the removal of RNA primers, this repairs the phosphodiester nick using energy from NAD (in bacteria) or ATP (in eukaryotes). |
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|
Term
| DNA ligase repairs the phosphodiester nick using energy from ______ (in bacteria) or ______ (in eukaryotes). |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| DNA ligase repairs the phosphodiester nick using energy from NAD (in ______) or ATP (in ______). |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| An extrachromosomal genetic element that may be present in some cells. |
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Term
|
Definition
-bacteria
-archaea
-eukaryotic microbes |
|
|
Term
| plasmids primarily encode... |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| why bacteria can cause sickness |
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Definition
| because some genes they use just happen to make the host sick |
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Term
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Definition
| segregate equally to daughter cells |
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Term
| High-copy-number plasmids |
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Definition
| segregate randomly to daughter cells |
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Term
| Plasmids are useful for... |
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Definition
| genetic engineering applications. |
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Term
| one way bacteria rid themselves of foreign DNA |
|
Definition
| restriction endonucleases |
|
|
Term
| restriction endonucleases |
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Definition
| “Molecular scissors” that cleave unfamiliar DNA molecules at specific palindromic sequences called restriction sites |
|
|
Term
| restriction endonucleases aka... |
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Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specific palindromic sites where restriction endonucleases cleave unfamiliar DNA molecules |
|
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Term
| what humens use restriction endonucleases for |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| scenario in which a bacteria would want to use restriction enzymes to cut foreign DNA |
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Definition
| protection, often against viral DNA (bacteriophages) |
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Term
| how bacteria avoid cutting their own DNA |
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Definition
| they methylate their DNA at specific sequences where they would otherwise be cut |
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Term
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Definition
| sequence where both strands read the same in the 5’-3’ direction |
|
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Term
| 2 types of ends that can be caused by restriction endonucleases |
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Definition
-blunt (no overhang)
-sticky (has overhang) |
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Term
| ______ can be used to analyze fragments of DNA cut after cleavage with restriction endonucleases. |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the process of importing free DNA into bacterial cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| Able to take up DNA from the environment (capable of natural transformation) |
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Term
|
Definition
| A bacterial cell membrane protein complex that imports external DNA during transformation in Gram positive bacteria. It facilitates uptake of DNA. |
|
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Term
| As the Gram positive bacteria grow, the competence factor (CF)... |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| In Gram positive bacteria, at specific levels, CF will induce... |
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Definition
| a genetic program that induces the transformasome |
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Term
| Gram-negative bacteria transform DNA without... |
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Definition
| the use of competence factors (CF) |
|
|
Term
| Do Gram-negative bacteria use transformasomes? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| specificity of transformation in most Gram-negative species |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| Membrane proteins encoded by F+ bacteria prevent... |
|
Definition
| conjugation with other F+ |
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Term
| how gene transfer by conjugation occurs |
|
Definition
1. Sex pilus from the F+ plasmid donor (left) attaches to receptors on the recipient cell (right).
2. Contraction of the pilus draws the two cells together and forms a relaxosome bridge.
3. The F factor is nicked at oriT, and the 5′ end begins transfer through the bridge.
4. The strand remaining in the donor is replicated.
5. Once in the recipient, the transferred strand circularizes and replicates.
6. The recipient has been converted to a donor.
[image] |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
| example of DNA transfer From Bacteria to Plants |
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Definition
| Agrobacterium tumefaciens transfers DNA to plants. |
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Term
| Does Agrobacterium tumefaciens stimulate nodule formation or fix nitrogen? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| why Agrobacterium tumefaciens causes tumors |
|
Definition
| because it contains a tumor-inducing plasmid (Ti) that can be transferred via conjugation to plants |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| tumor-inducing plasmid that Agrobacterium tumefaciens can transfer to plants via conjugation |
|
|
Term
| Agrobacterium tumefaciens causes... |
|
Definition
Crown gall disease tumor
[image] |
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|
Term
| characteristics of CROWN GALL DISEASE |
|
Definition
-Round tumor growths on stems or roots.
-Interferes with plants ability to move nutrients and water.
-Plant severely growth impaired. |
|
|
Term
| how Agrobacterium tumefaciens knows plant is wounded |
|
Definition
| it detects “wound compounds” |
|
|
Term
| Agrobacterium tumefaciens metabolizes... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| CROWN GALL DISEASE caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens |
|
|
Term
| the control bacteria used to treat roots with crown gall disease |
|
Definition
| Agrobacterium radiobacter |
|
|
Term
| Agrobacterium radiobacter |
|
Definition
a non-pathogenic competitor of Agrobacterium tumefaciens
-it is the control bacteria used to treat roots with crown gall disease |
|
|
Term
| how Agrobacterium radiobacter counteracts Agrobacterium tumefaciens |
|
Definition
| Agrobacterium radiobacter outcompetes Agrobacterium tumefaciens for space and nutrients and eventually limits the growth of A. tumefaciens. |
|
|
Term
| The number of genes transferred in any one phage capsid is limited to... |
|
Definition
| what can fit in the phage head. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a heritable change in DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A substances that causes DNA mutations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A test of the mutagenicity of a substance |
|
|
Term
| what does it mean when Salmonella is defective in hisG? |
|
Definition
| it means it's a mutant of wild-type Salmonella that cannot grow on media lacking histidine |
|
|
Term
| If Salmonella hisG suddenly grows on this histidine-free media, it means... |
|
Definition
| they acquired changes to their DNA such that it reverted the gene back to normal. This is called reversion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A mutation that changes a previous mutation back to its original state |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria that has undergone reversion, which is the change of a previous mutation back to its original state |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-A hisG auxotrophic mutant of Salmonella enterica will not grow on histidine-free medium.
-A disk containing a possible mutagen is placed at the center of the plate.
-Prototrophic hisG+ revertants form around the disk as the mutagen diffuses into the medium. [image] |
|
|
Term
| the purpose of the Ames test |
|
Definition
| to screen for mutagenesis |
|
|
Term
| why screening for mutagenesis is important |
|
Definition
| because mutagenesis is an uderlying factor in tumor and cancer development |
|
|
Term
| why the Ames test uses histidine-free media with Salmonella hisG (unable to produce histidine) |
|
Definition
| screens for revertants that mutate back to Salmonella WT |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ames test where liver enzymes are added to the media to determine whether or not they promote mutations |
|
|
Term
A mutagen-containing disk is placed on an agar plate with the mutant.
Mutagen causes reversion mutations, and colonies start to appear around the disk.
Q- What does this tell you about the test mutagen? |
|
Definition
| it causes a significant amount of DNA damage |
|
|
Term
| modified Ames tests for... |
|
Definition
| the mutagenic properties of chemicals processed through the liver |
|
|
Term
| 2 types of Error-proof pathways |
|
Definition
-Methyl mismatch repair
-Nucleotide excision repair |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| corrects unmethylated daughter strand based on the methylated parental strand so that the unmethylated daughter strand complements the methylated parental strand |
|
|
Term
| how methyl mismatch repair differentiates between parent and daughter strands of DNA |
|
Definition
| it uses methylation of the parental strand to discriminate from newly replicated DNA |
|
|
Term
| the premise of Methyl mismatch repair |
|
Definition
| The premise is that the parental strand will contain the proper DNA sequence. |
|
|
Term
| does nucleotide excision repair distinguish between parental/daughter strands? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Error-prone repair pathways |
|
Definition
| Risk introducing mutations |
|
|
Term
| SOS (“SAVE OUR SHIP”) REPAIR is induced by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ can introduce many single stranded “gaps”. |
|
Definition
| Extensive UV light exposure |
|
|
Term
| Extensive UV light exposure can introduce many ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A regulatory protein that can bind to a specific DNA sequence and inhibit transcription of genes |
|
|
Term
| what happens to cell division in SOS repair? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cell will live after SOS repair if... |
|
Definition
| it can tolerate any mutations caused by PolIV and Pol V…and any other side effects of the cellular stress (ie. phage activation) |
|
|
Term
| why SOS repair may not always lead to survival and DNA repair |
|
Definition
because it activates multiple pathways
Some stress pathways may be activated and inadvertently harm the cell |
|
|
Term
| example of SOS repair leading to harming the cell |
|
Definition
| Some stress pathways may be activated and inadvertently harm the cell |
|
|
Term
| Many humans carry ______ in their nasopharynx. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Many humans carry Staphylococcus aureus in their ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When it swims, it projects light downward. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some details about the Hawaiian Bobtailed Squid |
|
Definition
-found in the warm waters of Hawaiian coast.
-nocturnal
-When it is active at night it projects light produced by the bacteria Aliivibrio fischeri downward so its predators can't see it. That is, it projects light of the same intensity as moonlight. Doing so means it won’t cast a shadow as it swims. Its predators (such as sharks) don’t see its shadow and thus, don’t notice it. It’s a survival mechanism. |
|
|
Term
| the Hawaiian Bobtailed Squid's survival mechanism |
|
Definition
| -When it swims it projects downward light about the same light of the same intensity as moonlight so that it won’t cast a shadow as it swims, making its predators (such as sharks) unable to see it. |
|
|
Term
| how the bacteria Aliivibrio fischeri grows inside the Hawaiian Bobtailed Squid |
|
Definition
-During the day as the squid is buried in the sand the bacteria grow to high numbers in the squid light organ. This is so at night the levels of bacteria are high enough to produce the light needed for camouflage.
-At dawn (morning) the squid will flush most of the bacteria out of the light organ (note the levels of bacteria drop). As it rests in the sand during the day the few bacteria that were not flushed out reproduce and repopulate the light organ and the cycle repeats. |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how molecular regulation in the Hawaiian Bobtailed Squid works |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when the secreted autoinducer reenters cells |
|
Definition
| when it is at a certain extracellular concentration |
|
|
Term
| what the autoinducer does when it reenters the cell |
|
Definition
| It binds to a regulatory molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the light-producing bacteria in the Hawaiian Bobtailed Squid |
|
|
Term
| Light production by Alliivibrio fischeri requires... |
|
Definition
quorum sensing
That is, the bacteria can sense when the population is at high density and communicate with each other to produce the light (at night in this case). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bind to regulatory sequences in the DNA and prevent transcription of target genes |
|
|
Term
| repressor requires ligand (______) to release |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A small molecule that must bind to a repressor to allow the repressor to bind operator DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An increase in gene expression caused by the decrease in concentration of a corepressor |
|
|
Term
| difference between induction and derepression |
|
Definition
induction is caused by increased concentration of a ligand (inducer) while derepression is caused by decreased concentration of a ligand (corepressor)
[image] |
|
|
Term
induction or derepression?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
induction or derepression?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bind to regulatory sequences in the DNA and stimulate transcription of target genes
Most must first bind a small ligand. |
|
|
Term
| Most activators must first... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can inducers be involved in activation? |
|
Definition
yes
inducers bind to activator proteins
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Jacques Monod and François Jacob |
|
Definition
-1961
-proposed the revolutionary idea that genes could be regulated.
-They noticed that, in E. coli, enzymes used to metabolize lactose were inducible. These enzymes were produced only when lactose was added to media.
-noted glucose enzymes were different from that of lactose
-noticed that, in E. coli, enzymes used to metabolize glucose were constitutive, which means it's produced all the time |
|
|
Term
| -proposed the revolutionary idea that genes could be regulated |
|
Definition
| Jacques Monod and François Jacob |
|
|
Term
| -noticed that, in E. coli, enzymes used to metabolize lactose were inducible. These enzymes were produced only when lactose was added to media. |
|
Definition
| Jacques Monod and François Jacob |
|
|
Term
| how lactose is moved into an E. coli cell |
|
Definition
| A lactose permease uses PMF to move lactose into cell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| uses proton motive force to move lactose (and a proton) into the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cleaves lactose into galactose and glucose at high β–galactosidase levels or...
modifies linkage producing allolactose at low β–galactosidase levels |
|
|
Term
| when β-galactosidase cleaves lactose into galactose and glucose |
|
Definition
| Only at high β–galactosidase levels |
|
|
Term
| when β-galactosidase modifies linkage in lactose to produce allolactose |
|
Definition
| Only at low β–galactosidase levels |
|
|
Term
| does the bacterium transcribe and translate the genes for lactose utilization when it doesn’t need to? |
|
Definition
| yes, but to a very small extent |
|
|
Term
| When there is no lactose, LacZYA operon is transcribed at ______ levels. |
|
Definition
very low
Thus, levels of Lactose permease and Beta-galactosidase will be very low. |
|
|
Term
| levels of Lactose permease in the absence of lactose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| levels of Beta-galactosidase in the absence of lactose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| noted glucose enzymes were different from that of lactose |
|
Definition
| Jacques Monod and François Jacob |
|
|
Term
| noticed that, in E. coli, enzymes used to metabolize glucose were constitutive, which means it's produced all the time |
|
Definition
| Jacques Monod and François Jacob |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In E.coli, ______ is the preferred carbon source. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of a diauxic growth curve |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what does this represent?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the protein yielded by LacY |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glucose ______ β-galactosidase production. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glucose transport into the cell ______ lactose import. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of Inducer Exclusion |
|
Definition
Glucose transport into the cell inhibits lactose import.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Glucose transport via the phosphotransferase system ______ LacY (lactose permease) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the ______ of glucose the lactose transporter is fully functional to move lactose into the cell. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the absence of glucose the lactose transporter is ______ to move lactose into the cell. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Absence of glucose ______ free lactose transport into the cell. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ of glucose allows free lactose transport into the cell. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| breakdown of complex molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| building up of complex biomolecules from smaller precursors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ are hydrolyzed to glucose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| polysacs are ______ to glucose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| polysacs are hydrolyzed to ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ are broken down to acetate. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lipids are broken down to ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ are hydrolyzed to amino acids and then broken down to acetate, amines, and other molecules. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Peptides are ______ to amino acids and then broken down to acetate, amines, and other molecules. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Peptides are hydrolyzed to ______ and then broken down to acetate, amines, and other molecules. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some examples of a complex aromatic molecules |
|
Definition
-lignins
-halogenated aromatic pollutants |
|
|
Term
| Carbohydrates are broken down by specific enzymes to ______ and then to monosaccharides such as glucose. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Carbohydrates are broken down by specific enzymes to disaccharides and then to ______. |
|
Definition
| monosaccharides such as glucose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Humans can’t digest xyloglucans without... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lettuce xyloglucans are ______ polymers of D-glucose (Glc) with side chains of xylose (Xyl), galactose (Gal), and fucose (Fuc). In tomatoes, xyloglucan side chains also have arabinose (Ara). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lettuce xyloglucans are beta-linked polymers of ______ with side chains of xylose (Xyl), galactose (Gal), and fucose (Fuc). In tomatoes, xyloglucan side chains also have arabinose (Ara). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lettuce xyloglucans are beta-linked polymers of D-glucose (Glc) with side chains of ______. In tomatoes, xyloglucan side chains also have arabinose (Ara). |
|
Definition
| xylose (Xyl), galactose (Gal), and fucose (Fuc) |
|
|
Term
| Lettuce xyloglucans are beta-linked polymers of D-glucose (Glc) with side chains of xylose (Xyl), galactose (Gal), and fucose (Fuc). In ______, xyloglucan side chains also have arabinose (Ara). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lettuce xyloglucans are beta-linked polymers of D-glucose (Glc) with side chains of xylose (Xyl), galactose (Gal), and fucose (Fuc). In tomatoes, xyloglucan side chains also have ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Each type of xyloglucan requires a slightly different set of genes, called a... |
|
Definition
| polysaccharide utilization locus (PUL). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a common ancestral starch utilization system (SUS). |
|
|
Term
| Most gut bacteria possess a number of PULs distributed around their genomes, showing evidence of... |
|
Definition
| horizontal gene transfer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synteny, evidence of descent from a common ancestor. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evidence of descent from a common ancestor |
|
|
Term
| Bacteroides share ______ with their community. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Bacteroides share catabolic enzymes with their ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some of the outer membrane of Bacteroides can pinch off to form ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why would it be advantageous for Bacteroides to share catabolism genes with other bacteria in the gut (ie. its competitors)? |
|
Definition
| possible reasons
1: more small molecules available for Bacteroides, increasing the efficiency with which the xyloglucans are digested
2: host health; the bacteria want their host to remain healthy, because that's their envirinment |
|
|
Term
| the 3 main routes by which Bacteria & Archaea catabolism of glucose occurs |
|
Definition
1. Glycolysis or Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas Pathway (EMP)
2. Entner-Doudoroff Pathway (ED)
3. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) |
|
|
Term
| where the EMP pathway occurs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the EMP pathway functions in the presence or absence of O2? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glucose catabolism connects with the ______ through pyruvate breakdown to acetyl-CoA and CO2. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is also known as... |
|
Definition
| the Krebs cycle, or citric acid cycle. |
|
|
Term
| In prokaryotes, the TCA cycle occurs in the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In eukaryotes, the TCA cycle occurs in the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the ______, products of sugar breakdown can be catabolized to CO2 and H2O. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the TCA cycle, products of sugar breakdown can be ______ to CO2 and H2O. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the TCA cycle, products of sugar breakdown can be catabolized to ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The complete oxidative breakdown of glucose to CO2 and H2O could theoretically generate up to ______ ATP. |
|
Definition
38
Under actual conditions, the number is smaller. |
|
|
Term
| the ED pathway is studied mostly in... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ED pathway occurs in the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ED pathway functions in the presence or absence of O2? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it is used for biosynthesis; Enzymes for amino acid biosynthesis use NADPH |
|
|
Term
| PPP PATHWAY occurs in the ______ of the cell. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Can the PPP PATHWAY operate independently or at the same time as other pathways? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Does the PPP PATHWAY function in the presence or absence of O2? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ______, like the ED pathway, involves glucose 6-phosphate losing electrons to form NADPH. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The PPP pathway, like the ED pathway, involves glucose 6-phosphate ______ to form NADPH. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the electron transport chain generates... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the electron transport chain is composed of... |
|
Definition
| a series of membrane embedded electron carriers |
|
|
Term
| A place for electron carriers to drop off electrons other than the electron transport chain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a way to use fermentation to detect pathogenic E. coli |
|
Definition
| Sorbitol fermentation test for pathogen E. coli O157:H7. White colonies (strain O157:H7) fail to ferment sorbitol, unlike red colonies (nonpathogenic E. coli). It uses McConkey agar.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| E. COLI 0157: H7 is a lethal contaminant of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| E. COLI 0157: H7 contains ______ genes. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the genes "normal" E. coli has that pathogenic E. coli doesnt |
|
Definition
| those for the enzymes to ferment sorbitol |
|
|
Term
| is Geobacter aerobic or anaerobic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Geobacter is “______-breathing” |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ oxidizes organic compounds to CO2, with iron being the final electron acceptor. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Geobacter oxidizes organic compounds to CO2, with ______ being the final electron acceptor. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ is also said to “produce electricity”. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| using microorganisms to reduce pollution. |
|
|
Term
| ______ used for removal of Uranium from water in Colorado. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Geobacter used for removal of ______ from water in Colorado. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Many bacteria that are utilized in bioremediation form biofilms. Why would that be important? |
|
Definition
| If you can get bacteria to stay at the site and get them to flourish there, you increase the chances of them staying there and removing the toxin from the environment. |
|
|
Term
| is Sulfolobus bacteria or archaea? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of a Thermoacidophile |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sulfolobus has biotechnology applications due to ______ at high temp & low pH. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sulfolobus has biotechnology applications due to enzyme stability at ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrogen sulfide oxidized to sulfuric acid |
|
|
Term
| example of an organism that does sulfur oxidation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Microbial sulfur oxidation can cause... |
|
Definition
| severe environmental acidification |
|
|
Term
| Most of Earth’s photosynthetic production, especially in the oceans, comes from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The proton gradient generated using bacteriorhodopsin drives... |
|
Definition
| ATP synthesis by a typical F1Fo ATP synthase |
|
|
Term
| To maximize light absorption organisms may pack their entire cell membrane with ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| composition of the "purple membrane" of bacteriorhodopsin |
|
Definition
trimers of bacteriorhodopsin packed in hexagonal arrays
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Traditional microbial taxonomy (was or was not) rooted in evolutionary relatedness. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In traditional microbial taxonomy, naming referenced... |
|
Definition
| diseases they caused or processes they performed.
Ex. Mycobacterium tuberculosis |
|
|
Term
| the type of taxonomy used today for microbes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In polyphasic taxonomy, microbes are categorized based on... |
|
Definition
-Genotype
-phenotype
-evolutionary relatedness (rRNA) |
|
|
Term
| GROUPINGS WE WILL CONSIDER in microbial diversity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Largest grouping- Bacteria/Archaea/Eukarya |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large group of related microbes (evolutionary) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Group of closely related microbes, comprised of several species with different properties |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some MAJOR BACTERIAL PHYLA |
|
Definition
-Deep-branching thermophiles
-Cyanobacteria
-Gram-positive bacteria
-Proteobacteria
-Deep-branching Gram-negative bacteria
-Spirochetes
-Chlamydiae, Planctomycetes, and Verrumicrobia |
|
|
Term
| the three bacterial phyla we will focus on in this course |
|
Definition
-Deep-branching thermophiles
-Cyanobacteria
-Gram-positive bacteria |
|
|
Term
| is the group DEEP BRANCHING THERMOPHILES one phylum or more than one phylum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
Definition
-Diverged the earliest from ancestral archaea and eukaryotes
-Fastest doubling rates of all bacteria
-High mutation rate |
|
|
Term
| which group of bacteria Diverged the earliest from ancestral archaea and eukaryotes? |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
| which group of bacteria is the Fastest doubling rates of all bacteria? |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
| name a group of bacteria with a High mutation rate |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
| which group of bacteria diverged the earliest? |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of PHYLUM AQUIFICAE |
|
Definition
-“Water maker”
-Oxidize hydrogen gas with molecular oxygen to make water
-Ether linked membrane lipids (usually found in Archaea) |
|
|
Term
| which bacteria phylum is “Water maker”? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacteria phylum oxidizes hydrogen gas with molecular oxygen to make water? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacteria phylum has ether linked membrane lipids (usually found in Archaea)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| PHYLUM AQUIFICAE is unique in that it has... |
|
Definition
membrane lipid links composed of ether
-this feature is usually associated with Archaeal organisms |
|
|
Term
| name a bacterial species that belongs to the phylum Aquificae |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Thermocrinis ruber |
|
Definition
-all the properties of the bacterial phylum
-On standard lab media, it grows as a bacilli (rod)
-In its natural environment of streams (water currents), it grows as long thin intertwined filaments.
-82-88˚C temperature preference
-prefers a warm environment rich in water flow
-as mat of “pink streamers” |
|
|
Term
| why Thermocrinis ruber change morphology on different surfaces |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thermocrinis ruber growing as rods on standard lab media |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thermocrinis ruber growing as long, intertwined filaments in water currents (streams) |
|
|
Term
| why was Thermocrinis ruber initially hard to study? |
|
Definition
| because growing as rods on standard lab media and growing as long intertwined filaments in water currents (streams) made scientists believe they were culturing the wrong organism |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
Definition
-“Toga”
-Loosely bound sheath-Absence of “classical” outer membrane
-Mosaic genomes (bacterial-archaeal)
-all the properties of deep branching thermophiles
-contain the unique characteristic of membrane “sheaths” that balloon away from the cell at the cell poles |
|
|
Term
| which bacterial phylum contains Loosely bound sheath-Absence of “classical” outer membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacterial phylum has Mosaic genomes (bacterial-archaeal)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacterial phylum contains the unique characteristic of membrane “sheaths” that balloon away from the cell at the cell poles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the difference between the sheaths in PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE and classical Gram negative outer membranes |
|
Definition
| the sheaths in PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE balloon away from the cell at the cell poles |
|
|
Term
| why do members of PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE have a ballooning membrane? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Thermotoga maritima |
|
Definition
-One of the highest recorded growth temperatures (90˚C)
-During growth “sheath” extends from the poles.
-Outer envelope “grows”
-Cytoplasmic growth “stalls” |
|
|
Term
| has one of the highest recorded growth temperatures (90˚C) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During growth “sheath” extends from the poles. |
|
Definition
| Thermotoga maritima
I think the entire PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
|
Term
| Outer envelope “grows” while the Cytoplasmic growth “stalls” |
|
Definition
| Thermotoga maritima
I think the entire PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| member of PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a species in the PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a species in the PHYLUM AQUIFICAE |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some phyla within the group DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
Definition
-PHYLUM AQUIFICAE
-PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE
-PHYLUM CHLOROFELXI |
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Thermotoga maritima in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Thermocrinis ruber in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| member of PHYLUM CHLOROFELXI |
|
|
Term
| bacteria in PHYLUM CHLOROFELXI grow as... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name a member of phylum CHLOROFELXI |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Chloroflexus aurantiacus in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Chloroflexus aurantiacus |
|
Definition
-Lower layers of microbial mats (Under Cyanobacteria)
-Gram negative (atypical)
-No outer membrane
-50-65˚C temperature range |
|
|
Term
| Chloroflexus aurantiacus is found in... |
|
Definition
| microbial mats (biofilms). |
|
|
Term
| parts of the mats Chloroflexus aurantiacus is usually associated with |
|
Definition
| non-surface areas of the mats |
|
|
Term
| what bacteria are found on the surface of mats? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chloroflexus aurantiacus is atypical of phylum Chloroflexi in that... |
|
Definition
-it has no outer membrane
-it is not Gram positive (no teichoic acids/no thick peptidoglycan) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| found in lower layers of microbial mats, usually under Cyanobacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is Chloroflexus aurantiacus Gram-positive or Gram-negative? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name a bacterium that has no outer membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the prefered temperature range for Chloroflexus aurantiacus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the environment preferred by Chloroflexus aurantiacus |
|
Definition
| warm stream environments, such as Yellowstone's Octopus Spring |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
-Largest, most diverse group of photosynthetic bacteria
-The only ones who are oxygenic
-Thick peptidoglycan (almost as thick as Gram +)
-Appear green because of the predominant blue and red absorption by chlorophylls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Largest, most diverse group of photosynthetic bacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The only bacteria who are oxygenic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Thickness of peptidoglycan cell wall in PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
| almost as thick as Gram + |
|
|
Term
| Appear green because of the predominant blue and red absorption by chlorophylls |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cyanobacteria share many kinds of ______ associations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cyanobacteria participate in this type of community |
|
Definition
| multilayered microbial mats |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two or more organisms living in close association and providing benefits to each other |
|
|
Term
| where Cyanobacteria are found in microbial mats |
|
Definition
| usually the surface layer |
|
|
Term
| how do organisms in a mutualistic relationship grow without each other? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cyanobacteria and diatoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Purple sulfur proteobacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long-wavelength purple sulfur bacteria |
|
|
Term
| some ways Cyanobacteria can grow |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pleurocapsa pond Cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria growing as colonies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Oscillatoria Cyanobacteria growing as filaments |
|
|
Term
| this Cyanobacteria forms filaments that consist of platelike cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this Cyanobacteria forms enormous aggregates that release baeocytes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Pleurocapsa forms enormous aggregates that release... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it forms filaments that consist of platelike cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it forms enormous aggregates that release baeocytes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| colonies of Chroococcus (a type of Cyanobacteria) |
|
|
Term
| how Cyanobacteria form colonies |
|
Definition
| they surround themselves with other single cells and encase the community in a layer of protective mucus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Specialized cells in filamentous Cyanobacteria used for nitrogen fixation |
|
|
Term
| when HETEROCYSTS are produced |
|
Definition
| when organism is nitrogen deprived |
|
|
Term
| how the heterocyst protects its ability to fix nitrogen |
|
Definition
| Thick heterocyst wall prevents O2 diffusion into heterocyst which would inactivate nitrogenase. |
|
|
Term
| why Cyanobacteria need heterocysts |
|
Definition
| because they live in oxygen rich environments and oxygen can inactivate the enzyme necessary for nitrogen fixation |
|
|
Term
| name a genus of Cyanobacteria that produces heterocysts |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some things Cyanobacteria may have |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some Cyanobacteria that contain thylakoids and carboxysomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ accounts for 40%–50% of marine phototrophic biomass. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Prochlorococcus accounts for ______ of marine phototrophic biomass. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name a species in phylum Cyanobacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the temperature Synechococcus elongatus prefers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 distinct Gram-positive phyla |
|
Definition
-Phylum Firmicutes
-Phylum Actinobacteria |
|
|
Term
| difference between Phylum Firmicutes and Phylum Actinobacteria |
|
Definition
-members of Phylum Firmicutes are “Low-GC” species
-members of Phylum Actinobacteria “High-GC” species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| less than 50% GC (guanosine and cytosine) in their genomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| more than 50% GC (guanosine and cytosine) in their genomes |
|
|
Term
| characteristics of PHYLUM FIRMICUTES |
|
Definition
-Low-GC
-Many form endospores
-Many are pathogens |
|
|
Term
| name a species in PHYLUM FIRMICUTES` |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Clostridium difficile in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dormant bacterial structures used to survive harsh environmental conditions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a bacterium that is a serious agent of human inflammation of the colon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Clostridium difficile survives in the gut |
|
Definition
| it forms endospores that survive for months or years in the colon and when the conditions become optimal for it (reduction of gut flora via antibiotic use) the spores will germinate to metabolically active bacteria |
|
|
Term
| when conditions become right for Clostridium difficile |
|
Definition
| reduction of gut flora via antibiotic use |
|
|
Term
| what Clostridium difficile endospores do when conditions become right |
|
Definition
| they germinate to metabolically active bacteria |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of GENUS CLOSTRIDIUM |
|
Definition
-Rods
-obligate anaerobes
-Spore forming (some have terminal drumstick) |
|
|
Term
| what causes the drumstick shape in some Clostridium spores? |
|
Definition
| ensospore formation at one pole of the cell
As Clostridium cells sporulate, the endospore swells, forming a characteristic “drumstick” appearance. |
|
|
Term
| As ______ cells sporulate, the endospore swells, forming a characteristic “drumstick” appearance. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| As Clostridium cells sporulate, the endospore swells, forming a characteristic “______” appearance. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Clostridium botulium |
|
Definition
-Agent of foodborne botulism
-Common in environment/soil
-Spores allow dormant survival until ideal conditions are met (anaerobic) |
|
|
Term
| the agent of foodborne botulism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where Clostridium botulium can be found |
|
Definition
| Common in environment/soil |
|
|
Term
| how Clostridium botulium survives until conditions are right |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the right conditions for Clostridium botulium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| common source of Clostridium botulium infecting host |
|
Definition
| Improperly preserved foods |
|
|
Term
| what Clostridium botulium does to the host |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| bacteria that produces botulism toxin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what botulism toxin (botox) does to the host |
|
Definition
-Blocks nerve function
-Double vision
-drooping eyelids
-paralysis |
|
|
Term
what do these arrows point to?
[image] |
|
Definition
| terminal drumstick shape of bacteria that belong to the genus Clostridium, phylum Firmicutes |
|
|
Term
| why it's dangerous for infants younger than one year to consume honey |
|
Definition
| because honey often contains Clostridium botulinum endospores and the gut microflora in infants is not mature enough to prevent their attachment |
|
|
Term
| infants account for ______ of botulism cases |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some treatments for botulism |
|
Definition
-Intensive care
-antitoxin |
|
|
Term
| how gut bacteria protect against botulism |
|
Definition
| it prevents the attachment of Clostridium botulinum endospores |
|
|
Term
| how infants younger than 1 year get botulism |
|
Definition
| Exposure to endospores or toxin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some things that can expose humans to botulism |
|
Definition
-Food-borne botulism, such as canned foods
-sources outside the body |
|
|
Term
| What happens when the Clostridium botulinum germinates (becomes vegetative)? |
|
Definition
| it grows, divides, and produces botulism toxin |
|
|
Term
| where in the body does Clostridium botulinum germinate? |
|
Definition
| the lower GI tract, where it's anaerobic |
|
|
Term
| Can you compare and contrast the different mechanisms of human botulism? |
|
Definition
| In infants, the immature gut flora allows the Clostridium botulinum to germinate and produce the botulism toxin. In adults, the endospore can only germinate outside the body, but the botulism toxin itself can be consumed and cause disease. |
|
|
Term
| The amount of Botox used for therapeutic use |
|
Definition
| micro amounts (microdosing) |
|
|
Term
| Some therapeutic uses for botox |
|
Definition
-treatment of Bell's palsy
-migraine headaches
-it can also be used for wrinkles, but that's cosmetic |
|
|
Term
| Some characteristics of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
-High-GC
-Form complex multicellular filaments.
-Some are acid-fast |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria in PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA |
|
|
Term
| are members of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA high or low GC? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how members of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA grow |
|
Definition
| they form complex multicellular filaments |
|
|
Term
| a type of staining that works for some members of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which phylum is Genus Streptomyces in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Genus Streptomyces |
|
Definition
-Aerobic
-Non motile
-Inhabit soil
-Produce geosmin, which produces a moist earth odor
-Nonpathogenic
-Grow onto and into their substratum. |
|
|
Term
| are members of Genus Streptomyces aerobic or anaerobic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are members of of Genus Streptomyces motile or non-motile? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where do members of of Genus Streptomyces live? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| members of Genus Streptomyces account for ______ of culturable soil microbes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are members of genus Streptomyces acid-fast or not? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| members of Genus Streptomyces produce ______, which produces a moist earth odor |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| members of Genus Streptomyces produce geosmin, which produces... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are members of Genus Streptomyces pathogenic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how members of Genus Streptomyces grow |
|
Definition
| they grow onto and into their substratum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some bacteria in genus Streptomyces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some colonies of genus Streptomyces
they are a combination of: raised/rigid/flat areas (not fuzzy!) |
|
|
Term
| the chromosomes in genus Streptomyces |
|
Definition
| linear chromosomes with telomeres |
|
|
Term
| a group of prokaryotes that have linear chromosomes with telomeres |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hairpin-looped telomere end of the linear chromosome in genus Streptomyces |
|
|
Term
| some details about the life cycle of genus Streptomyces |
|
Definition
-Vegetative cells form dense substrate mycelium in the soil.
-Nutrient limitation/stress induces growth up into the air- (aerial mycelium)
-Aerial mycelium “cannibalize” substrate mycelium for nutrients
-The secondary metabolites are medically useful. (Antibiotics/ Anticancer)
-Aerial mycelium can also form spores (arthrospores) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
|
Term
| In genus ______, vegetative cells form dense substrate mycelium in the soil. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, ______ cells form dense substrate mycelium in the soil. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, vegetative cells form dense ______ in the soil. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, ______ induces growth up into the air- (aerial mycelium) |
|
Definition
| Nutrient limitation/stress |
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, Nutrient limitation/stress induces growth up into the air- (______) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, ______ “cannibalize” substrate mycelium for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, Aerial mycelium “______” substrate mycelium for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, Aerial mycelium “cannibalize” ______ for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus ______, Nutrient limitation/stress induces growth up into the air- (aerial mycelium) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus ______, Aerial mycelium “cannibalize” substrate mycelium for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ______ produced by genus Streptomyces are medically useful. (Antibiotics/ Anticancer) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The secondary metabolites produced by genus ______ are medically useful. (Antibiotics/ Anticancer) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The secondary metabolites produced by genus Streptomyces are medically useful. (______) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ formed by genus Streptomyces can also form spores (arthrospores) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aerial mycelium formed by genus ______ can also form spores (arthrospores) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aerial mycelium formed by genus Streptomyces can also form spores (______) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A mass of hyphae (branched filaments) that extend above the surface and produces spores at the tips. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A mass of hyphae (branched filaments) that form a network below the surface of the soil |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spores produced by the aerial mycelium of Streptomyces bacteria that can disperse in the wind |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| erection of aerial hyphae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sporulation septation and chromosome segregation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spore germination into substrate mycelium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The modern antibiotic revolution began in ______ with the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The modern antibiotic revolution began in 1928 with the discovery of ______ by Alexander Fleming. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The modern antibiotic revolution began in 1928 with the discovery of penicillin by ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the antibiotic revolution began |
|
Definition
-A contaminating mold had inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus colonies on a plate.
-Fleming theorized that the mold released a substance that inhibited/killed the bacteria! |
|
|
Term
| Antibacterial agents should exhibit ______ toxicity. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Antibiotics should affect... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some aspects of bacterial physiology antibiotics can affect |
|
Definition
-Peptidoglycan.
-Differences in ribosome structure.
-Biochemical pathway missing in humans. |
|
|
Term
| some classes of antibiotics |
|
Definition
-Broad spectrum
-Narrow spectrum
-Bactericidal
-Bacteriostatic |
|
|
Term
| Broad spectrum antibiotics |
|
Definition
| antibiotics that are effective against many species |
|
|
Term
| Narrow spectrum antibiotics |
|
Definition
| antibiotics that are effective against few or a single species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| antibiotics that kill target organisms |
|
|
Term
| Bacteriostatic antibiotics |
|
Definition
antibiotics that prevent growth of organisms
they don't themselves kill the intruder, but they slow down the bacterial replication such that the immune system can get rid of the intruder |
|
|
Term
| example of an antibiotic being both bactericidal and bacteriostatic |
|
Definition
| Some antibiotics are bactericidal at one concentration and bacteriostatic at another concentration. |
|
|
Term
| Can you describe a scenario in which a bacteriostatic drug would be the preferred antibiotic choice? |
|
Definition
1: to prevent the release of LPS from dying Gram-negative bacteria, if this is a Gram-negative infection
2: to preserve normal flora, especially since immune cells are very specific, even more so than antibiotics |
|
|
Term
| MINIMAL INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION (MIC) |
|
Definition
| the lowest concentration that prevents microbial growth |
|
|
Term
| the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) varies depending on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does finding the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) tell you whether the antibiotic is bactericidal or bacteriostatic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| After testing Tetracycline for the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), how could you determine whether it is bactericidal or bacteriostatic? |
|
Definition
| Remove the antibiotic from the culture tubes and observe for growth. If it grows, it's bacteriostatic. If no growth, it's bactericidal. |
|
|
Term
| the steps of Peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
1: Precursors are made in the cytoplasm.
2: They are carried across the cell membrane by a lipid carrier: bactoprenol.
3: The precursors are polymerized to the existing cell wall structure by transglycosylases.
4: The peptide side chains are cross-linked by transpeptidases. |
|
|
Term
| the 1st step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| Precursors are made in the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
| the 2nd step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| Precursors are carried across the cell membrane by a lipid carrier: bactoprenol. |
|
|
Term
| the 3rd step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| The precursors are polymerized to the existing cell wall structure by transglycosylases. |
|
|
Term
| the 4th step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| The peptide side chains are cross-linked by transpeptidases. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lipid carrier that carries peptidoglycan precursors across the cell membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polymerizes peptidoglycan precursors to the existing cell wall structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the enzyme that cross-links the amino acids in peptidoglycan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ointment that stops Peptidoglycan synthesis at step 2 by preventing the bactoprenol from being carried across the cell membrane. |
|
|
Term
| BACITRACIN is toxic if ingested, so how should it be used? |
|
Definition
| It must be used topically on the dermis. |
|
|
Term
| Staphylococcus aureus can cause ______ of the soft tissue. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Staphylococcus aureus can cause inflammation of the ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Does Staphylococcus aureus usually respond to penicillin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a type of Staphylococcus aureus that is a concern |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Methicillin (penicillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus |
|
|
Term
| Staphylococcus aureus usually responds to... |
|
Definition
| penicillin-like drugs (Methicillin class) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the gene “mecA” (Penicillin-binding protein) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gene in MRSA that encodes mecA protein |
|
|
Term
| how the mecA protein protects MRSA from penicillin |
|
Definition
| it binds to penicillin so that penicillin cannot attack cell wall enzymes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inhibits cell wall synthesis of Gram + bacteria only |
|
|
Term
| Vancomycin's mode of action |
|
Definition
| it binds to cell wall precursors and halts peptidoglycan synthesis at step 3, possibly by interfering with the transglycosylases such that they can't polymerize peptidoglycan precursors |
|
|
Term
| a drug that can be used to treat MRSA infections |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Vancomycin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus |
|
|
Term
| VRSA can only be treated with... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Treatment to sustain physiological well-being
-Fluids, pain killers, anti-inflammatory
-Not specific for the bacteria |
|
|
Term
| the 4 basic forms of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
Mechanism 1: Alter target.
Mechanism 2: Degrade antibiotic.
Mechanism 3: Modify antibiotic.
Mechanism 4: Pump antibiotic out of cell. |
|
|
Term
| mechanism 1 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanism 2 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanism 3 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanism 4 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
| Pump antibiotic out of cell. |
|
|
Term
| will an antibiotic resistance gene use more than one antibiotic resistance mechanism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 1: Alter target. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 2: Degrade antibiotic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 3: Modify antibiotic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 4: Pump antibiotic out of cell. |
|
|
Term
| how microbes alter the target |
|
Definition
-They modify the target so that it no longer binds the antibiotic.
-Mutations in ribosomal proteins confer resistance to streptomycin. |
|
|
Term
| how microbes degrade the antibiotic |
|
Definition
-They destroy the antibiotic before it gets into cell.
-The beta-lactamase enzyme specifically destroys penicillins. |
|
|
Term
| ______ confer resistance to streptomycin. |
|
Definition
| Mutations in ribosomal proteins |
|
|
Term
| The ______ enzyme specifically destroys penicillins. |
|
Definition
| beta-lactamase (or penicillinase) |
|
|
Term
| The beta-lactamase enzyme specifically destroys ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how beta-lactamase (or penicillinase) destroys penicillin |
|
Definition
| it cleaves the beta-lactam ring of penicillins and cephalosporins |
|
|
Term
| There are two types of penicillinases, based on... |
|
Definition
| where the enzyme attacks the ring. |
|
|
Term
| what both groups of penicillinases have in common |
|
Definition
| a serine hydroxyl group launches a nucleophilic attack on the ring |
|
|
Term
| how microbes modify antibiotics |
|
Definition
| They add modifying groups that inactivate antibiotic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Aminoglycoside acetyltransferase (AAC) catalyzes acetyl-CoA dependent acetylation of an amino group. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Aminoglycoside phosphotransferase (APH) catalyzes ATP-dependent phosphorylation (yellow) of a hydroxyl group. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Aminoglycoside adenylyltransferase (ANT) catalyzes ATP-dependent adenylylation (yellow) of a hydroxyl group. |
|
|
Term
| Aminoglycoside-inactivating enzymes |
|
Definition
enzymes that inactivate aminoglycoside antibiotics
-they help inactivate antibiotics |
|
|
Term
| how microbes pump the antibiotic out of the cell |
|
Definition
by using specific transporters and transport complexes
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| type of cell that uses a strategy similar to the one used to pump antibiotics out of the cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| type of pump that pumps antibiotics out of the cell and is of particular concern |
|
Definition
| multidrug resistance (MDR) efflux pumps |
|
|
Term
| multidrug resistance (MDR) efflux pumps |
|
Definition
found in Gram-negative bacteria, these efflux systems have promiscuous binding sites that can bind and pump a wide range of drugs out of the bacterial cell.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1892
-Studied Tobacco Mosaic Disease |
|
|
Term
| Studied Tobacco Mosaic Disease |
|
Definition
1892- Dmitri Ivanovsky
1898- Beijerinck |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1898
-Studied Tobacco Mosaic Disease
-Made the conceptual leap |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Tobacco Mosaic Disease |
|
Definition
| -Mottling of the leaves, stunted leaves, wrinkles.
-Observed agent was not removed by filters. |
|
|
Term
| The difference between the work of Beijerinck and that of Ivanovsky |
|
Definition
| Beijerinck postulated that the agent of tobacco mosaic virus must be very small in size. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1898
-Former students of Koch
-Studied Foot and Mouth Disease of Livestock. |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Foot and Mouth Disease of Livestock |
|
Definition
| -High fever, blisters, weight loss.
-Agent not removed by filter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Studied Foot and Mouth Disease of Livestock. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1911
-Studied sarcomas (tumors) in chickens. |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of sarcomas (tumors) in chickens |
|
Definition
-Cell free “filtrate” from diseased chickens could transmit tumors to healthy chickens.
-Cancer transmitted by a virus. |
|
|
Term
| Studied sarcomas (tumors) in chickens. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the original meaning of the term virus |
|
Definition
the term “virus” was used to mean “poison”
-No one could prove what was causing these illness that were not associated with bacteria. |
|
|
Term
| when viruses were first viewed |
|
Definition
| Viruses were finally viewed with the development of the electron microscope in the 1950s. |
|
|
Term
| What was thought to be the causative agent in diseases that are now known to be caused by viruses? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are there any naturally beneficial viruses? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| things most viruses cause for their host |
|
Definition
-harm
-nuisance
-some form of problems |
|
|
Term
| viruses that may be beneficial |
|
Definition
| Viruses that kill pathogens or gene therapy |
|
|
Term
| Viruses are grouped by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some shared properties viruses are grouped by |
|
Definition
-Nature of their nucleic acid (DNA or RNA).
-Symmetry of their protein shell.
-Presence or absence of a lipid membrane.
-Nucleic acid comparisons. |
|
|
Term
| GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES |
|
Definition
| -≥1 molecule of DNA or RNA enclosed in coat of protein.
-May have additional layers.
-Cannot reproduce independent of living cells nor carry out cell division.
-Can exist extracellularly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Virion size range is ~10–400 nm in diameter.
-All virions contain a nucleocapsid which is composed of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat (capsid).
-Some have envelopes- plasma membrane components derived from their host.
-Some have spikes-proteins used for attachment to host.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-≥1 molecule of DNA or RNA enclosed in coat of protein.
-May have additional layers. |
|
|
Term
| can viruses reproduce outside of living cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can viruses carry out cell division? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can viruses exist extracellularly? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a nucleocapsid which is composed of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat (capsid) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A protein that coats a viral genome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The protein shell that surrounds a virion’s nucleic acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| virion w/o lipid envelope |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| capsid (composed of capsomers) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plasma membrane components derived from the host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
proteins used for attachment to host
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protect viral genetic material and aids in its transfer between host cells. |
|
|
Term
| Capsids are made of protein subunits called ______, which aggregate to form capsomers. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Capsids are made of protein subunits called protomers, which aggregate to form ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| possible shapes of capsids |
|
Definition
-helical
-icosahedral
-complex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Shaped like hollow tubes with protein walls.
-May be bent or twisted. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
helical virus
Tobacco Mosaic Virus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bent/twisted helical capsid
influenza |
|
|
Term
| some viruses that use helical capsids |
|
Definition
-tobacco mosaic virus
-influenza |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Polyhedral with 20 identical triangular faces
-Structure exhibits rotational symmetry. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
isocahedral capsid
herpes virus without envelope |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
isocahedral capsid
adenovirus |
|
|
Term
| some viruses that use isocahedral capsids |
|
Definition
-herpes simplex 1 (HSV-1)
-adenovirus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neither helical nor isocahedral |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
complex capsid
"tailed virus"
bacteriophage T4 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how bacteriophage T4 infects cell |
|
Definition
1: attachment to cell surface, facilitated by fibers
2: sheath contracts
3: core penetrates cell surface
4: phage genome is injected |
|
|
Term
| some DNA genomes that can exist in viruses |
|
Definition
-dsDNA
-ssDNA (+ / “sense”) |
|
|
Term
| some RNA genomes that can exist in viruses |
|
Definition
-ssRNA (+ / “sense”)
-ssRNA (- / “antisense”)
-dsRNA |
|
|
Term
| does the same virus always have the same genome? |
|
Definition
no
Some viruses use different genome types during different stages of their life cycle. |
|
|
Term
| the steps of VIRUS REPLICATION |
|
Definition
1. Host recognition and attachment
2. Genome entry
3. Assembly of virions
4. Exit and transmission |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viruses that only attack bacteria |
|
|
Term
| Contact and attachment of bacteriophages are mediated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Proteins that are specific to the host species |
|
|
Term
| what cell-surface receptors are normally used for |
|
Definition
| important functions for the host cell |
|
|
Term
| types of host molecules that can serve as a phage receptors |
|
Definition
-LPS components
-membrane proteins and complexes (OmpF and TolC)
-flagellar proteins
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what most bacteriophages inject into host cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens to the capsid after the bacteriophage injects its genome into a host cell? |
|
Definition
The phage capsid remains outside, attached to the cell surface.
“Ghost.” |
|
|
Term
| how phage T4 infects bacterial cell |
|
Definition
Phage T4 attaches to the cell surface by its tail fibers and then contracts to inject its DNA
[image] |
|
|
Term
| cycles of phage reproduction |
|
Definition
-Lytic cycle
-Lysogenic cycle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Bacteriophage quickly replicates, killing host cell.
this is active replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Bacteriophage is quiescent.
-Integrates into cell chromosome, as a prophage.
-Can reactivate to become lytic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A phage genome integrated into a host genome |
|
|
Term
| The “decision” between the lytic and lysogenic cycles is dictated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ trigger a lytic burst. |
|
Definition
| Events that threaten host cell survival |
|
|
Term
| Events that threaten host cell survival trigger a ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1: Attachment to a bacterial host
2: Phage injects DNA
3: Phage destroys bacterial DNA and takes over active machinery to replicate more phage
4: Phage assembles more virus
5: Phage causes bacterial lysis to release the phage
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesis of viral genomes and proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the bacteriophage lysogenic cycle is a type of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the virus does during the lysogenic cycle |
|
Definition
| During this cycle, the virus does not actively replicate but rather remains dormant within the bacterial cell with the capacity to reactivate and become active at a later time. |
|
|
Term
| how the lysogenic cycle progresses |
|
Definition
[image]
Left panel: Certain factors (largely unknown) cause a virus to become lysogenic (dormant). If this cycle is entered the viral DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome.
Bottom panel: While dormant, the viral DNA, because it is integrated into the bacterial chromosome will get replicated and passed on to bacterial daughter cells during binary fission.
Right panel: As bacteria divide during binary fission the viral DNA is passed along with the bacterial DNA. This can lead to a population of bacteria carrying viral DNA.
Top panel: Occasionally in a daughter cell that is carrying the viral DNA; the virus will enter lytic phase and actively replicate to produce more virions. (lytic cycle previous slide) |
|
|
Term
| What would be the advantage of bacteriophage lysogeny (for the virus)? |
|
Definition
virus gets passed to daughter cells, since it's inside the genome
this can lead to a population of bacteria with prophage DNA inside its genome |
|
|
Term
| what BACTERIOPHAGE T4 DNA has in place of cytosine (C) |
|
Definition
| HMC (Hydroxymethylcytosine) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why BACTERIOPHAGE T4 DNA uses HMC (Hydroxymethylcytosine) instead of cytosine (C) |
|
Definition
because it protects DNA from destruction by bacterial defense mechanisms:
Restriction endonucleases |
|
|
Term
| how BACTERIOPHAGE T4 protects its DNA from destruction by bacterial restriction endonucleases |
|
Definition
| uses HMC (Hydroxymethylcytosine) instead of cytosine (C) |
|
|
Term
| why animal viruses have greater complexity and diversity of viral replication cycles |
|
Definition
| because eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than prokaryotic cells |
|
|
Term
| how animal viruses attach to host cells |
|
Definition
-Animal viruses bind specific receptor proteins on their host cell.
-Receptors determine the viral tropism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The ability of a virus to infect a particular tissue type
affinity or preference |
|
|
Term
| can an animal virus have more than 1 tropism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-cellular tropism
-tissue tropism
-host tropism
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how animal viruses enter the cell |
|
Definition
-Endocytosis
-Membrane Fusion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Virus passes through membrane.
-Membrane lipids surround capsid to fuse envelope.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how DNA viruses in animals replicate their genome |
|
Definition
| Can utilize some or all of the host replication machinery |
|
|
Term
| how RNA viruses in animals replicate their genome |
|
Definition
| Use a viral RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase to generate RNA template |
|
|
Term
| how Retroviruses in animals replicate their genome |
|
Definition
| Use a viral reverse transcriptase to copy their genomic sequence into DNA for insertion in the host chromosome |
|
|
Term
| All animal viruses make proteins with... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where the synthesis of viral proteins and the assembly of new virions can occur |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 ways viruses can be released from a bacterial cell |
|
Definition
Lysis of cell
Exocytosis
Budding |
|
|
Term
| how the virus leaves the cell by budding |
|
Definition
-Virus passes through membrane.
-Membrane lipids surround capsid to form envelope. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how long HERPESVIRUS infections last |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| HERPESVIRUSES are distinguished from each other by... |
|
Definition
| the type of cells they exhibit latency in |
|
|
Term
| do herpesviruses produce virions during latency? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where herpesvirus DNA is during latency |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| herpesviruses are capable of reactivation to virion production if... |
|
Definition
| given the appropriate stimuli |
|
|
Term
| what stimuli cause herpesvirus reactivation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the virus remains dormant with the capacity to reactivate and make more virus at a later time |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of HERPESVIRUSES |
|
Definition
-Icosahedral
-Enveloped
-Spiked
-have a tegument (layer of proteins)
-dsDNA
-productive infections
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| herpesviruses enveloped or not? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| herpesviruses spiked or unspiked? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| nucleic acid in herpesviruses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Herpesvirus tegument proteins |
|
Definition
| a series of special proteins that assist in virus replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The contents of a virion between the capsid and the envelope |
|
|
Term
| herpesvirus infections produce how many virions? |
|
Definition
| 50,000–200,000 virions produced/cell |
|
|
Term
| Host cell infected by herpesvirus may die due to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| symptoms of HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS (HSV) TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
Cold and genital sores
[image]
this is a cold sore |
|
|
Term
| Hallmark characteristic of HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS (HSV) TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
| Establish latency in neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how attachment occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Virions “surf” host cell surfaces
-Initially attach to host Heparan Sulfate
-Full attachment requires several other tissue specific receptors, such as Nectin on Epithelial Cells and Neurons
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how entry occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
| Virions enter the host through fusion or endocytosis |
|
|
Term
| how genome replication occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
| Nucleocapsid finds its way to the nucleus to replicate its DNA |
|
|
Term
| how Protein Synthesis & Assembly occur in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Proteins are synthesized with host ribosomes then shuttled back to nucleus to assemble nucleocapsid
-Nucleocapsid leaves the nucleus
-Travels to Golgi on its way out of the cell |
|
|
Term
| how Release/Exit occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Mature virions get released from host via exocytosis
-Upregulate host Heparanase for their release |
|
|
Term
| HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE 1 AND 2 have have a strong tendency to stick to... |
|
Definition
| heparan sulfate on the surface of the host cells |
|
|
Term
| is a productive infection lytic or lysogenic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some signs/symptoms that can result from HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Flu-like symptoms (initial infection)
-Red, fluid fill lesion(s)
-Tingling, pain at site of lesions |
|
|
Term
| when the HSV host shows no signs/symptoms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how latency in HSV types 1 and 2 occurs |
|
Definition
-Virus enters sensory neurons near site of productive infection.
-Remains in neurons for lifetime of host!
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lytic replication in epithelial cells at a mucosal surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viral capsid moves down axon via retrograde transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infection of sensory neuron in ganglia; site of latency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when the HSV host shows signs/symptoms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how reactivation in HSV 1 and 2 occurs |
|
Definition
-Virus leaves sensory neurons
-Copy of viral DNA remains in nucleus
-Virus returns to site of initial infection (mucosal epithelium) and undergoes productive infection
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| appropriate stimulus reactivates virus from latent state in neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reactivation from latency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viral capsid moves back down axon via anterograde transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recurrent infection at site of initial infection |
|
|
Term
| does reactivation kill the neuron? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| symptoms of HERPES SIMPLEX TYPE 2-GENITAL HERPES |
|
Definition
-Burning sensation, genital soreness, and blisters in infected area.
-May lead to inflammation of bladder/rectum. |
|
|
Term
| HIV can become latent in... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Reactivation/replication of HIV in T cells leads to... |
|
Definition
| T cell death (immune suppression) |
|
|
Term
| how HIV wrecks the immune system |
|
Definition
| Reactivation/replication of HIV in T cells leads to T cell death (immune suppression) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Flu-like symptoms
-Swollen lymph nodes
-Sores that won’t heal
-Fatigue
-Rash
-Night Sweats |
|
|
Term
| sime complications that result from HIV |
|
Definition
| it can persist and lead to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) |
|
|
Term
| Some HIV patients rapidly develop Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) within... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some HIV patients remain healthy for at least ______ post infection. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how infections begin in HIV patients |
|
Definition
| T cell count reduces and opportunistic infections begin. |
|
|
Term
| AIDS patients do or do not usually become seriously ill directly from HIV itself? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infections that would not normally cause illness but will replicate to high numbers if they have the opportunity to |
|
|
Term
| example of something that causes an opportunistic infection |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Candida yeast infections are opportunistic infections |
|
Definition
| they would be a minor illness in a healthy person but could cause serious complications in those who are immune suppressed |
|
|
Term
| Most patients with AIDS exhibit serious illnesses because... |
|
Definition
| HIV has lowered immunity towards other microorganisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produces dsDNA from ssRNA |
|
|
Term
| what happens to the dsDNA that the HIV's reverse transcriptase produces? |
|
Definition
| it integrates into host genome |
|
|
Term
| New virions of HIV cause... |
|
Definition
| host cell lysis (T cell death) |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of HIV |
|
Definition
-(+)ssRNA
-Carries reverse transcriptase.
+Reverse transcribed into dsDNA, which integrates into host genome.
-Can remain latent/reactivate.
-New virions cause host cell lysis (T cell death). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chronically infected HIV patients have diverse HIV populations in their blood, called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A collection of isolates (usually viruses) from a common source of infection that have evolved into many different types within one host |
|
|
Term
| ______ HIV patients have diverse HIV populations in their blood, called quasispecies |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chronically infected HIV patients have ______ HIV populations in their blood, called quasispecies |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ virus populations hard to target with antiviral drugs. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Diverse virus populations hard to target with ______ drugs. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| frequency of HIV mutation |
|
Definition
| HIV mutates frequently such that an infected patient has diverse variants within their body at any one time. |
|
|
Term
| Certain variants of HIV ______ tissues of the genital tract. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Certain variants of HIV “seed” tissues of the ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many HIV variants can make their way to the genital tract and replicate in the genital tissue? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| “seeding” the genital tissue |
|
Definition
| going to the genital tract and replicating in the genital tissue |
|
|
Term
| the HIV variants that are seen in fluid from genital tract |
|
Definition
| the ones that "seed" the genital tract |
|
|
Term
| what variants of HIV get transmitted to others? |
|
Definition
| only the fastest replicating variants |
|
|
Term
| how fast replicating variants of HIV infect new hosts |
|
Definition
| they seed the blood of the new host |
|
|
Term
| some reasons HIV is difficult to treat |
|
Definition
-no one drug will effectively target all the diverse variants
-By the time most patients are diagnosed the virus has already produced the diverse population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Chronically infected patients have diverse HIV populations in their blood (quasispecies). Diverse populations hard to target with antiviral drugs.
-Certain variants “seed” tissues of the genital tract.
-The same variants are seen in fluid from genital tract.
-Fast replicating variants are transmitted to others.
-Fast replicating variants seed the blood of newly infected.
-Population becomes diverse in new patient. Diverse populations are hard to target with antiviral drugs.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| donor blood (chronic infection) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recipient blood (acute infection) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recipient blood (chronic infection) |
|
|
Term
| is HIV vaccine available? |
|
Definition
| no, but active research is ongoing |
|
|
Term
| the ideal HIV vaccine would... |
|
Definition
| stimulate the production of specific antibodies which would bind to HIV preventing it from entering host cells |
|
|
Term
| Problems with development of HIV vaccine |
|
Definition
| Virions continually change their properties (variants) |
|
|
Term
| HIV virions continually change their... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of a virus that doesn't exhibit latency |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of virus that exhibits seasonality |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| during certain seasonal time periods, the virus will be most active |
|
|
Term
| Influenza peaks during... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 hypotheses as to why Influenza peaks during winter |
|
Definition
1: In the United States, winter months mean generally, more time is spent indoors in closer contact with others. The likelihood of picking up respiratory infection (droplets) from another increases. This is true of most respiratory microorganisms; not only Influenza.
2: The stability of an influenza virion decreases as the humidity in the air increases. That is, the virus remains more stable in dry air than it does in humid air. Meaning, dry air is more common during the winter; thus the virus will be more stable during those months. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it spreads via aerosols-short incubation |
|
|
Term
| some symptoms of influenza |
|
Definition
-Muscle aches / fatigue
-Chills
-Fever
-Sore throat |
|
|
Term
| some complications that can result from influenza |
|
Definition
| Bacterial secondary infections of the lungs, sinus, and ear |
|
|
Term
| secondary infections that can result from influenza |
|
Definition
| Bacterial secondary infections of the lungs, sinus, and ear |
|
|
Term
| the nucleic acid in influenza |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms affected by influenza A |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms affected by influenza B |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms affected by influenza C |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| influenza virion, showing that it has its genome in multiple segments |
|
|
Term
| the spike proteins on an influenza virus |
|
Definition
-hemagglutinin (HA)
-neuraminidase (NA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Important for attachment to respiratory epithelium. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Important for hydrolysis of epithelial mucus, allowing better adherence to cells, and release of virions. |
|
|
Term
| Subtypes of influenza virus are named on the basis of... |
|
Definition
their hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) variants
Ex. H5N1 Bird Flu |
|
|
Term
| effect of rapid influenza mutation |
|
Definition
| mutates frequently during replication leading to rapid Influenza variants emerging in a population (flu season) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Each strand of influenza virus genome encodes... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A cell infected with two different strains of influenza virus can... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what could happen when one cell is infected by two strains of Influenza virus? |
|
Definition
| one strain of the virus could accidentally pick up some strands of genome from the other strain of the virus as they are both using the same machinery to replicate |
|
|
Term
| how a novel strain of the influenza virus can emerge |
|
Definition
| one strain of the virus accidentally picking up some strands of genome from the other strain of the virus in the same cell during replication |
|
|
Term
| difference between reassorting and mutating |
|
Definition
| mutating has only one strain involved while reassorting involves two or more strains picking up characteristics from each other |
|
|
Term
| how the 2009 swine flu outbreak is believed to have begun |
|
Definition
[image]
In 2009 there was a swine flu outbreak that was believed to have resulted from a “reassortment” event. The leading theory is that an Avian Influenza strain and a Human Influenza strain both infected a population of pigs at the same time. In the pig host the virus reassorted into a novel strain of Influenza that had traits of both strains. This novel “swine” strain carried properties much different than most human strains of the flu that its infectivity was greatly increased. |
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the ______ meet in February to review data and recommend the upcoming strains to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
| World Health Organization and collaborators |
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the World Health Organization and collaborators meet in ______ to review data and recommend the upcoming strains to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the World Health Organization and collaborators meet in February to ______ and recommend the upcoming strains to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the World Health Organization and collaborators meet in February to review data and recommend ______ to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ______ makes the final decision for influenza vaccines for the United States. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many strains are included in the influenza vaccine during a given year? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how inactivated influenza vaccine is done |
|
Definition
| Administered via needle (shot). |
|
|
Term
| does inactivated influenza virus replicate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how live/attenuated influenza vaccine is done |
|
Definition
| Administered via intranasal mist. |
|
|
Term
| does Live/Attenuated influenza virus replicate? |
|
Definition
| it replicates some, but not enough to give you the flu |
|
|
Term
| when Live/Attenuated influenza vaccine was reintroduced |
|
Definition
| During the 2019 flu season |
|
|
Term
| is there any differenc in effectiveness between inactivated and live/attenuated influenza vaccine? |
|
Definition
| During 2020 flu season data indicated no difference in effectiveness (meaning it had similar effectiveness as inactivated).
At the time of this statement: flu season 2020 just ended so retrospective analysis may change findings. |
|
|
Term
| symptoms of HERPES SIMPLEX TYPE 1 |
|
Definition
-Blister at lips, mouth, and gums. (cold sores)
-Can gain access to eye. |
|
|
Term
| how HSV 1 remains in the body |
|
Definition
-Lifetime latency
-periodic reactivation in times of stress. |
|
|
Term
| when HSV 1 is reactivated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is there a cure for HSV 1? |
|
Definition
| no, but there is treatment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Antiviral
-acts as nucleotides, incorporated into viral DNA, stops polymerization |
|
|
Term
| how Acyclovir is antiviral |
|
Definition
acts as nucleotides, incorporated into viral DNA, stops polymerization
basically stops virus DNA polymerization |
|
|
Term
| Herpes outbreaks will typically resolve... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an OVER-THE-COUNTER TREATMENT FOR COLD SORES |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -OVER-THE-COUNTER TREATMENT FOR COLD SORES
-Contains Docosanol (fatty acid)- “Changes the host cell membrane which surrounds healthy cells so that virus can't enter cells.”
-It is not an antiviral, in order to be effective must be applied at earliest signs of outbreak (tingling). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fatty acid that “Changes the host cell membrane which surrounds healthy cells so that virus can’t enter cells.” |
|
|
Term
| how Docosanol treats cold sores |
|
Definition
| the Docosanol (fatty acid) in it “Changes the host cell membrane which surrounds healthy cells so that virus can’t enter cells.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| for Docosanol to be affective, it must be... |
|
Definition
| applied at earliest signs of outbreak (tingling). |
|
|
Term
| the earliest signs of a HSV 1 outbreak |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If a patient waits too long before applying treatment (Docosanol),... |
|
Definition
| the virus will have already infected enough cells to cause a full outbreak, but it may lessen the duration of outbreak. |
|
|
Term
| Docosanol is only approved for ______ outbreaks of HSV 1 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why are there so few antiviral agents available? |
|
Definition
-Applying the principle of selective toxicity is much harder for viruses than it is for bacteria.
-Few targets are unique.
-since all viruses replicate inside a host cell and use host cell machinery, targeting that machinery would mean targeting the host (high likelihood of side effects) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all viruses replicate inside a host cell and use host cell machinery |
|
|
Term
| why antivirals run the risk of side effects |
|
Definition
| because all viruses replicate inside a host cell and use host cell machinery, which means targeting that machinery would mean targeting the host |
|
|
Term
| neuraminidase (NA) is needed by influenza to... |
|
Definition
| escape from the host cell |
|
|
Term
| how neuraminidase (NA) helps influenza escape from the host cell |
|
Definition
it cleaves sialic acid groups from host glycoproteins
[image] |
|
|
Term
| ______ binds to NEURAMINIDASE (NA) so that it can’t cleave host attachment. |
|
Definition
| Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) |
|
|
Term
| Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) binds to ______ so that it can’t cleave host attachment. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) binds to NEURAMINIDASE (NA) so that it can’t ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) prevents Influenza from leaving the host cell to find new cellular targets |
|
Definition
it binds to NEURAMINIDASE (NA) so that it can’t cleave host attachment
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Tamiflu is most effective if taken... |
|
Definition
| within 2 days of symptom onset |
|
|
Term
| what type of inhibitor is Tamiflu? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is Tamiflu is most effective if taken within 2 days of symptom onset? |
|
Definition
| after 2 days, it's more likely that the virus has already released high numbers of itself |
|
|
Term
| some Inhibitors of influenza proteins |
|
Definition
-Amantadine
-Zanamivir
-Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) |
|
|
Term
| how Amantadine interferes with influenza |
|
Definition
| it inhibits the M2 protein |
|
|
Term
| how Zanamivir inhibits influenza |
|
Definition
| it inhibits neuraminidase |
|
|
Term
| some drugs that inhibit HIV |
|
Definition
-AZT
-Indinavir
-Enfuvirtide |
|
|
Term
| how AZT interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
-Reverse Transcription Inhibitor)
-Prevents HIV reverse transcription |
|
|
Term
| how Indinavir interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
-Protease Inhibitor
-Prevents HIV protein cleavage |
|
|
Term
| how Enfuvirtide interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
-Fusion Inhibitor
-Prevents entry of HIV into cells |
|
|
Term
| why HIV must be targeted with a multi-drug cocktail |
|
Definition
| because the diverse HIV variants within a host’s body are hard to target with one drug |
|
|
Term
| how HIV protease interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
it cleaves a single Gag polyprotein into multiple, smaller proteins
[image]
The protease enzyme is shown here as a ribbon structure, while the protease inhibitor BEA 369 is shown as a stick model |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ssRNA that can go straight to the translation process, as if it's mRNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ssRNA that acts as a template for synthesis of mRNA that goes to the translation process |
|
|
Term
| difference between (+/sense) ssRNA and (-/antisense) ssRNA |
|
Definition
| (+/sense) ssRNA goes straight from virus to translation process while (-/antisense) ssRNA functions as a template for synthesis of mRNA that goes to the translation process |
|
|
Term
| Our bodies carry about ______ times as many bacterial cells as nucleated human cells. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The consortium of colonizing microbes has been dubbed the... |
|
Definition
| human microbiota or microbiome |
|
|
Term
| the human microbiota or microbiome |
|
Definition
| The consortium of colonizing microbes inside the human body |
|
|
Term
| A(n) ______ host is at risk due to opportunistic pathogens. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| An immunocompromised host is at risk due to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DENTAL PLAQUE is [this much] Bacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| DENTAL PLAQUE attaches to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ is/are converted to extracellular “sticky” polymers. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Dietary sugars are converted to... |
|
Definition
| extracellular “sticky” polymers |
|
|
Term
| what too much dental plaque can lead to |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If ______ gains access to distal body locations, this can lead to illness. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If dental plaque gains access to ______, this can lead to illness. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If dental plaque gains access to distal body locations, this can lead to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria in human dental plaque |
|
|
Term
| are the bacteria in dental plaque considered part of the normal microbiome? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ can cause oral flora to enter the bloodstream. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how bacteria in the bloodstream can be trapped in the heart |
|
Definition
| Heart valve defects, such as murmurs, can trap bacteria which then form a biofilm. |
|
|
Term
| Heart valve defects, such as ______, can trap bacteria which then form a biofilm. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______, such as murmurs, can trap bacteria which then form a biofilm. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Heart valve defects, such as murmurs, can trap bacteria which then form... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how dental plaque can harm the heart |
|
Definition
-Dental procedures can cause oral flora to enter the bloodstream.
-Heart valve defects such as murmurs can trap bacteria which then form a biofilm.
-This event can lead to inflammation of the heart; in particular those with underlying heart valve defects. |
|
|
Term
| do bacteria have hostile intent? |
|
Definition
| no, only the need to find food |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some ways normal flora benefit the human host |
|
Definition
-Make vitamins.
-Prevent colonization by pathogens.
-Make immunomodulin proteins which stimulate the immune system.
-protection
-integrity of the tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacterially synthesized proteins that stimulate the immune system |
|
|
Term
| how immunomodulin stimulates the immune system |
|
Definition
| stimulates it locally so immune cells can come there to remove pathogens |
|
|
Term
| Are there any human anatomical areas not usually colonized by normal flora? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| human anatomical areas not usually colonized by normal flora |
|
Definition
-muscular
-skeletal
-cardiovascular
-nervous
-endocrine
-lymphatic |
|
|
Term
| what happens when bacteria get into anatomical areas that are not usually inhabited by normal flora? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The immune system is an integrated system of... |
|
Definition
-organs
-tissues
-cells
-cell products |
|
|
Term
| the immune system differentiates... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the immune system is capable of... |
|
Definition
| responding to nearly any foreign molecular structure |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of innate immunity |
|
Definition
-Nonspecific
-Present at birth
-First line of defense |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of adaptive immunity |
|
Definition
-Specific
-Developed over time
-Has “memory”
-Reacts to specific antigens |
|
|
Term
| some physical barriers to disease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of the skin that make it a physical barrier against disease |
|
Definition
-Stratum corneum (dead)
-Keratinized
-Slightly acidic pH 5.5
-SALT- Skin Associated Lymphoid Tissue:
+Langerhans cells |
|
|
Term
| part of the skin that's dead |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Skin Associated Lymphoid Tissue |
|
|
Term
| component of Skin Associated Lymphoid Tissue that plays a part in immunity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized immune cells (antigen presenting cells) that reside in/on the skin to alert the immune system of any invading microorganisms |
|
|
Term
| how mucous membranes act as a physical barrier to disease |
|
Definition
-Traps pathogens.
-Cilia move mucus.
-Mucus products can destroy pathogens. |
|
|
Term
| the cells that produce mucous |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| columnar epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
| MUCOUS MEMBRANES are bathed in... |
|
Definition
| antimicrobial products that contain lysozyme, lactoferrin, and lactoperoxidase |
|
|
Term
| the antimicrobial products in mucous membranes contain... |
|
Definition
-lysozyme
-lactoferrin
-lactoperoxidase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrolyzes bonds connecting sugars in peptidoglycan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sequesters iron from plasma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Produces superoxide radicals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Peptides produced by normal flora.
-Lethal to related species. |
|
|
Term
| some groups of BACTERIOCINS produced by normal flora |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
class of bacteriocins produced by normal flora
-Many Gram (+)
-Forms holes in target cell membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
class of bacteriocins produced by normal flora
-E. coli (Gram -)
-Damage DNA, stop protein synthesis, & forms holes in inner membrane. |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of complement |
|
Definition
-Composed of >30 host serum proteins.
-Augments (or “complements”) the antibacterial activity of antibodies.
-Function as signals that recruit phagocytes to their activation site.
-Punctures cell membranes causing cell lysis. |
|
|
Term
| complement is composed of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the role of complement in immunity |
|
Definition
-it augments (or “complements”) the antibacterial activity of antibodies
-it functions as signals that recruit phagocytes to their activation site |
|
|
Term
| how complement kills pathogenic bacteria |
|
Definition
| it punctures cell membranes, causing cell lysis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Soluble proteins that are released by cells and act as signaling molecules |
|
|
Term
| some processes cytokines are involved in |
|
Definition
-Proliferation
-Differentiation
-Apoptosis
-Cell movement (chemokines) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| low-molecular-weight cytokines |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Bind to receptors on uninfected host cell, and render them resistant to viral infection.
-Cleave dsRNA and block viral RNA translation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Has immunomodulatory function |
|
|
Term
| how type I interferons protect cells |
|
Definition
| they bind to receptors on uninfected host cell, and render them resistant to viral infection |
|
|
Term
| how type I interferons slow down viruses |
|
Definition
| they cleave dsRNA and block viral RNA translation |
|
|
Term
| the function of type II interferons |
|
Definition
| immunomodulatory function |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nonspecific response to tissue injury |
|
|
Term
| inflammation is caused by... |
|
Definition
| pathogen or physical trauma |
|
|
Term
| 5 Cardinal signs of inflammation |
|
Definition
-Redness
-Warmth
-Pain
-Swelling
-Altered function |
|
|
Term
| some things that happen during inflammation |
|
Definition
-Tissue injury releases kalikrein and other mediators.
+Increases capillary dilation and blood flow.
-Fibrin clots restrict pathogen movement.
-Phagocytes accumulate in inflamed area and destroy pathogens. |
|
|
Term
| in inflammation, tissue injury releases... |
|
Definition
| kalikrein and other mediators |
|
|
Term
| in inflammation, the release of kalikrein and other mediators causes... |
|
Definition
| increased capillary dilation and blood flow |
|
|
Term
| in inflammation, ______ restrict pathogen movement |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ______, fibrin clots restrict pathogen movement |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in inflammation, fibrin clots restrict... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ______, phagocytes accumulate in inflamed area and destroy pathogens |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in inflammation, ______ accumulate in inflamed area and destroy pathogens |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in inflammation, phagocytes accumulate in ______ and destroy pathogens |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in inflammation, phagocytes accumulate in inflamed area and... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-elevated body temperature
-natural reaction to infection |
|
|
Term
| The ______ acts as the body’s thermostat. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| substances that induce fever; they raise the hypothalamus set-point |
|
|
Term
| the hypothalamus's normal set-point |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why pyrogens induce fever |
|
Definition
-to impair microbial growth
-to activate immune cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some types of INNATE IMMUNE PHAGOCYTES |
|
Definition
-Dendritic Cells
-Macrophages
-Neutrophils |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| myeloid-derived dendritic cell |
|
|
Term
| Phagocytes must avoid attacking... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what prevents phagocytes from attacking host cells? |
|
Definition
| Host cell glycoprotein CD47 |
|
|
Term
| ______ is enhanced by opsonization |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Phagocytosis is enhanced by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| coating pathogens with antibodies that aid pathogen phagocytosis by innate immune cells |
|
|
Term
| some methods phagocytes use for killing pathogens |
|
Definition
-Oxygen-independent killing pathways
-Oxygen-dependent killing pathways
-Reactive nitrogen intermediates |
|
|
Term
| some Oxygen-independent killing pathways phagocytes use to kill pathogens |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some Oxygen-dependent killing pathways phagocytes use to kill pathogens |
|
Definition
-Superoxide anion
-Hydrogen Peroxide
-Hydroxyl radicals |
|
|
Term
| some Reactive nitrogen intermediates phagocytes use to kill pathogens |
|
Definition
-Nitric oxide
-Nitrite
-Nitrate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Destroy infected and cancerous host cells |
|
|
Term
| Healthy cells make ______ to protect them from natural killer cells. |
|
Definition
| surface MHC class I antigens |
|
|
Term
| host cells that stop making surface MHC class I antigens |
|
Definition
| Cancerous and infected cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pores in membrane by puncturing the membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A cytotoxic protein, secreted by T cells, that forms pores in target cell membranes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| develops as the need arises |
|
|
Term
| 2 types of adaptive immunity |
|
Definition
-Humoral immunity
-Cell-mediated immunity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| B cells produce antibodies that directly target antigens of invaders |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Antigen presenting cells activate T cells which can directly kill infected host cells |
|
|
Term
| The adaptive immune system (does or does not) recognize the whole microbe. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does the adaptive immune system recognize? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
small segment of an antigen that is capable of eliciting an immune response
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Generally, antibodies that recognize one epitope (will or will not) recognize others. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when antibodies that recognize one epitope recognize others |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cross-reactivity occurs when... |
|
Definition
| an antibody binds to a target other than its normal antigen because the target has features similar to the antigen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inflammation of heart, joints, & skin that occurs 2-4 weeks after strep throat |
|
|
Term
| why Inflammation of heart, joints, & skin can occur 2-4 weeks after strep throat |
|
Definition
| because Streptococcus pyogenes proteins can have similar conformations to that of the human heart; heart proteins look similar to those of Streptococcus pyogenes |
|
|
Term
| Rheumatic Fever results from... |
|
Definition
| human antibodies attacking the heart tissue by mistake |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A type of adaptive immunity mediated by antibodies
-it handles microbes that are extracellular (attacks microbe itself) |
|
|
Term
| how humoral immunity works |
|
Definition
-Microbial antigens bind to B cell receptors and are internalized/broken down into peptides.
-Peptides activate helper T cells.
-Cytokine release causes B cell proliferation.
-B cells proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells
[image] |
|
|
Term
| in ______, microbial antigens bind to B cell receptors and are internalized/broken down into peptides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, ______ bind to B cell receptors and are internalized/broken down into peptides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, microbial antigens bind to ______ and are internalized/broken down into peptides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, microbial antigens bind to B cell receptors and are ______ |
|
Definition
| internalized/broken down into peptides |
|
|
Term
| in ______, peptides activate helper T cells. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, ______ activate helper T cells. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, peptides activate... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in ______, cytokine release causes B cell proliferation. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, ______ causes B cell proliferation. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, cytokine release causes... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what causes T cell to release cell signals (cytokines) to B cell? |
|
Definition
B cell displaying antigen from microbe on its surface to Helper T cell
-This binding causes T cell to release cell signals (cytokines) to B cell. |
|
|
Term
| in ______, B cells proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, ______ proliferate and differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, B cells ______ into plasma cells and memory cells |
|
Definition
| proliferate and differentiate |
|
|
Term
| in humoral immunity, B cells proliferate and differentiate into... |
|
Definition
| plasma cells and memory cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| short-lived B cells that produce a single type of antibody |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produce a specific antibody and remains in circulation for weeks or years |
|
|
Term
| 3 ways antibodies protect the host |
|
Definition
-Neutralization
-Opsonization
-Complement Activation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Antibodies coat the microbe and prevent the microbe from infecting new cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Antibodies increase the likelihood that microbe will be engulfed and destroyed by phagocytes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Antibodies cause complement pathway to destroy microbe |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how cell-mediated immunity works |
|
Definition
-An antigen presenting cell (APC) ingests foreign material and incorporates a piece of antigen on its surface.
-APC’s will “present” the antigen to any T helper cells it happens to come across.
-A T helper cell with a correct receptor will bind and become activated.
-Others may simply not bind.
-The activated T helper cell rapidly divides to produce clones of itself.
-These can then activate Cytotoxic T cells. Which destroy abnormal cells. [image] |
|
|
Term
| A(n) ______ ingests foreign material and incorporates a piece of antigen on its surface. |
|
Definition
| antigen presenting cell (APC) |
|
|
Term
| An antigen presenting cell (APC) ______ and incorporates a piece of antigen on its surface. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| An antigen presenting cell (APC) ingests foreign material and... |
|
Definition
| incorporates a piece of antigen on its surface |
|
|
Term
| ______ will “present” the antigen to any T helper cells it happens to come across. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| APC’s will ______ to any T helper cells it happens to come across. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| APC’s will “present” the antigen to... |
|
Definition
| any T helper cells it happens to come across |
|
|
Term
| ______ with a correct receptor will bind and become activated. Others may simply not bind. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A T helper cell with ______ will bind and become activated. Others may simply not bind. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A T helper cell with a correct receptor will ______. Others may simply not bind. |
|
Definition
| bind and become activated |
|
|
Term
| A T helper cell with a correct receptor will bind and become activated. Others may... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what activates a helper T cell? |
|
Definition
helper T cell binding to macrophage with correct receptor
[image] |
|
|
Term
| ______ rapidly divides to produce clones of itself. |
|
Definition
| The activated T helper cell |
|
|
Term
| The activated T helper cell ______ to produce clones of itself. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The activated T helper cell rapidly divides to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ______ can activate other T cells (Cytotoxic T cells), which destroy abnormal cells. |
|
Definition
| clones of the activated T helper cell |
|
|
Term
| The clones of the activated T helper cell can ______, which destroy abnormal cells. |
|
Definition
| activate other T cells (Cytotoxic T cells) |
|
|
Term
| The clones of the activated T helper cell can activate other T cells (Cytotoxic T cells), which... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| T cells that search and find cells that have the same antigens (infected with the same microbe) and destroy those infected cells |
|
|
Term
| CYTOTOXIC T CELLS release... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the release of perforin & granzymes from cytotoxic T cells does to target cells |
|
Definition
-Forms pores in target cell.
-Triggers apoptosis (programmed cell death).
-Can also detect cancer antigens. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY & HUMORAL IMMUNITY work together or separate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY & HUMORAL IMMUNITY work together |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| macrophage displaying antigens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| activates other T cells and B cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell-mediated immunity (attack on infected cells) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| humoral immunity (secretion of antibodies by plasma cells) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bacterial and viral proteins that stimulate stronger immune response than normal antigens by “tricking” T cells into activation. |
|
|
Term
| how superantigens stimulate stronger immune response than normal antigens |
|
Definition
| by “tricking” T cells into activation |
|
|
Term
| normal activation requires... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how superantigens are different from normal antigens |
|
Definition
Superantigens are not specific, but will evoke a global T cell response.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Normal antigens evoke (specific or non-specific) response. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many T cells get activated by a normal antigen? |
|
Definition
| no more than 0.001% of them |
|
|
Term
| Superantigens evoke (specific or non-specific) response. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many T cells get activated by a superantigen? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| superantigens activate ~25% of T cells, causing... |
|
Definition
| a massive cytokine release |
|
|
Term
| Can you explain why superantigen non-specific binding can be a health threat? |
|
Definition
-overproduction of T cells
-severe global immune reaction
-organ failure
-massive and sudden immune response |
|
|
Term
| TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME (TSS) caused by... |
|
Definition
| Staphylococcus aureus strains that release toxic shock syndrome toxin (superantigen) |
|
|
Term
| example of a condition caused by superantigens |
|
Definition
| TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME (TSS) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME (TSS) toxin |
|
|
Term
| Historically, TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME (TSS) frequently occurred in... |
|
Definition
| females who used superabsorbent tampons |
|
|
Term
| why TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME (TSS) has frequently occurred in females |
|
Definition
| -used superabsorbent tampons.
-Tampons would dry/tear vaginal lining.
-Warm, moist environment is a breeding ground for Staphylococcus. |
|
|
Term
| some symptoms of TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME (TSS) |
|
Definition
-Low BP
-Fever
-Diarrhea
-Skin rash/Skin shedding |
|
|
Term
| TOXIC SHOCK SYNDROME (TSS) mortality rate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When you are first exposed to an antigen it takes ______ for the B cells to expand to plasma cells and make antibody. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When you are first exposed to an antigen it takes several days for ______ to expand to plasma cells and make antibody. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When you are first exposed to an antigen it takes several days for the B cells to ______ and make antibody. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When you are first exposed to an antigen it takes several days for the B cells to expand to plasma cells and make... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In ______, memory B cells “hang around” after the initial infection has cleared. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In immunological memory, ______ “hang around” after the initial infection has cleared. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In immunological memory, memory B cells “hang around” after... |
|
Definition
| the initial infection has cleared |
|
|
Term
| In immonological memory, what hapens when the same antigen returns? |
|
Definition
| the memory B cells respond quickly (and to a greater extent) upon subsequent exposure to the same antigen |
|
|
Term
| why some diseases can infect the same individual again |
|
Definition
because they can mutate so quickly, that their surface antigens change
example: influenza |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secondary immune response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Natural infection or vaccination.
-Immunity after lag period and memory cells generated.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Maternal antibodies or antibody therapy.
-Immunity is immediate but no memory cells generated.
[image] |
|
|
Term
active or passive immunity?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
active or passive immunity?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an organism’s ability to cause disease |
|
|
Term
| how pathogenicity is defined |
|
Definition
| in terms of how easily an organism causes disease (infectivity) and how severe that disease is (virulence) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| how easily an organism causes disease |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| how severe the disease is |
|
|
Term
| how INFECTIVITY is measured |
|
Definition
| by the infectious dose (ID50) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The number of microbes that will cause infection (disease) in half of test animals
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inversely related
higher infectivity means lower ID50 |
|
|
Term
| how virulence is measured |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The number of microbes that kill half of test animals
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inversely related
higher virulence means lower LD50 |
|
|
Term
| example of AIRBORNE TRANSMISSION |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the airborne transmissions that are the most likely to propel droplets |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cough releases ______ droplets |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Talking (5 minutes) releases ______ droplets |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Singing (1 minute) releases ______ droplets |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sneeze releases ______ droplets |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of contact transmission |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| direct contact transmission |
|
Definition
Physical interaction between source and new host
example: kissing |
|
|
Term
| indirect contact transmission |
|
Definition
Involves an intermediate (usually inanimate object)
example: eating utensils |
|
|
Term
| MICROBIAL ATTACHMENT: FIRST CONTACT requires... |
|
Definition
host receptor and microbial adhesin
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some types of microbial adhesins |
|
Definition
-bacterial fimbriae
-bacterial capsule
-bacterial S layer
-fungal filaments
-amoeba pseudopods
-viral spikes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Utilizes lytic substances to attack the host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| “attack” normal host tissue |
|
|
Term
| example of active invasion |
|
Definition
| Some microbial substances can degrade cell-cell contacts. |
|
|
Term
| some examples of active invasion |
|
Definition
| Some species of Clostridium produce collagenase to break down host collagen, allowing spread through connective tissue.
Some species of Streptococcus produce streptokinase to digest clots, allowing movement away from clotted area. |
|
|
Term
| Some species of ______ produce collagenase to break down host collagen, allowing spread through connective tissue. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some species of Clostridium produce ______ to break down host collagen, allowing spread through connective tissue. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some species of Clostridium produce collagenase to break down host collagen, allowing spread through... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some species of ______ produce streptokinase to digest clots, allowing movement away from clotted area. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some species of Streptococcus produce ______ to digest clots, allowing movement away from clotted area. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some species of Streptococcus produce streptokinase to digest clots, allowing movement away from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| breaks down host collagen to allow spread through connective tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| digests clots to allow movement away from clotted area |
|
|
Term
| symptoms of DUPUYTREN’S CONTRACTURE |
|
Definition
-Knots of connective tissue form on hands.
-“Puckering” of skin
-Loss of motion |
|
|
Term
| cause of DUPUYTREN’S CONTRACTURE |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| something used to treat DUPUYTREN’S CONTRACTURE |
|
Definition
| Clostridium collagenase (Xiaflex) used as a therapy |
|
|
Term
| how Clostridium collagenase (Xiaflex) treats DUPUYTREN’S CONTRACTURE |
|
Definition
| The drug Xiaflex that uses purified low dose Clostridium collagenase that when administered to site of contracture can break up the knots of connective tissue. This can resolve finger immobility. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-“Chance”
-Chance scenarios allow spread to deeper tissues.
+Ex. Insect bites or wounds |
|
|
Term
| examples of passive invasion |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organism that does passive invasion |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Clostridium tetani does passive invasion |
|
Definition
| Clostridium tetani toxin blocks inhibitory neural impulses from spinal cord to muscles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Clostridium tetani deep puncture wound |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Clostridium tetani endospores |
|
|
Term
| example of Clostridium tetani infecting a host |
|
Definition
| getting inoculated (passively) into a deep puncture wound (such as rusty nail into the skin) so that the endospores are introduced into an environment in which they can germinate (anaerobic) |
|
|
Term
| when microbes have access to all organs and systems |
|
Definition
| when they're in the circulatory system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Microbes in the blood actively replicating and causing immune reaction
*Could be actively replicating elsewhere but entering bloodstream |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| presence of viable bacteria in bloodstream |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| presence of viable viruses in bloodstream |
|
|
Term
| types of blood-borne infections |
|
Definition
-Bacteremia
-viremia
-Septicemia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Life threatening systemic response to septicemia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Fever
-Elevated heart rate
-Hypotension (low blood pressure)
-High white blood cell count
-Multiple organ failure |
|
|
Term
| true or false: cytotoxic T cells and natural killer cells can both destroy cancerous cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| true or false: complement can puncture cell membranes causing cell lysis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name a fact about S. aureus associated Toxic Shock Syndrome |
|
Definition
| the TSS toxin activates about 25% of all T cells in the patient |
|
|
Term
| Most microbes (are or are not) processed by the human digestive tract directly for nutrition. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| microbes that are processed by the human digestive tract directly for nutrition |
|
Definition
-Edible fungi
-Edible algae
-Edible yeast |
|
|
Term
| some edible food products that are produced using microbial fermentation |
|
Definition
-butter milk
-sour cream
-kefir
-wine
-sauerkraut |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a form of anaerobic catabolism that uses endogenous, organic electron acceptors
it produces ATP |
|
|
Term
| Food fermentation produces... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ACID-ALKALI FERMENTATION is effective as... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some ways ACID-ALKALI FERMENTATION is effective as a preservative |
|
Definition
-pH change non-reversible
-Extremophiles are unlikely |
|
|
Term
| is the ACID-ALKALI FERMENTATION pH change reversible? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| will there be any extremophiles in ACID-ALKALI FERMENTATION? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some major chemical conversions in LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION |
|
Definition
1: A substrate (glucose) is oxidized to pyruvic acid.
2: Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid.
3: A second stage fermentation may occur.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, a substrate (______) is oxidized to pyruvic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, a substrate (glucose) is ______ to pyruvic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, a substrate (glucose) is oxidized to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In ______ FERMENTATION, a substrate (glucose) is oxidized to pyruvic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID ______, a substrate (glucose) is oxidized to pyruvic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In ______ FERMENTATION, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID ______, pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, ______ is reduced to lactic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, pyruvate is ______ to lactic acid. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, pyruvate is reduced to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION, a ______ may occur. |
|
Definition
| second stage fermentation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| characteristics of Lactobacillales (LAB) |
|
Definition
-Gram (+)
-Rod or cocci
-Tolerate low pH
-Low GC |
|
|
Term
| are Lactobacillales (LAB) Gram (+) or Gram (-)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shape of Lactobacillales (LAB) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lactobacillales (LAB) tolerate ______ pH |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are Lactobacillales (LAB) High GC or Low GC? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| examples of Lactobacillales (LAB) |
|
Definition
| -Lactococcus
-Streptococcus
-Lactobacilli
-Enterococcus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bacterial community within Emmentaler cheese
-Lactobacillus helveticus (rods, 2.0–4.0 μm in length)
-Streptococcus thermophilus (cocci) |
|
|
Term
| the cheese production process |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inoculate biofilm with mold |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wash biofilm with salt solution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| leave biofilm undisturbed |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Major milk components include... |
|
Definition
-fat
-protein
-water
-lactose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are milk proteins soluble? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how pathogens are removed from milk |
|
Definition
| Milk is filtered to remove pathogens and pasteurized. |
|
|
Term
| Milk is ______ to remove pathogens and pasteurized. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Milk is filtered to remove ______ and pasteurized. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Milk is filtered to remove pathogens and... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of milk |
|
Definition
-Major milk components include fat, protein, water, and lactose.
-~pH6.6
-milk proteins soluble |
|
|
Term
| how milk is converted to cheese |
|
Definition
-Milk is filtered to remove pathogens and pasteurized.
-Microbial starter culture is added.
-As the bacteria ferment lactose the pH declines.
-Milk proteins (caseins) unfold exposing hydrophobic residues. Texture becomes semi-solid (ie. yogurt).
-Rennet (proteases) are added.
+Enzymes from digestive tract of unweaned animals or from genetically modified bacteria
-The caseins are cleaved into hydrophobic and hydrophilic components.
-Hydrophobic components form a firmer “curd” characteristic of cheeses. Hydrophilic component “whey” usually removed. |
|
|
Term
| As the bacteria ______ lactose the pH declines. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| As the bacteria ferment ______ the pH declines. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| As the bacteria ferment lactose the pH... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how milk becomes semi-solid |
|
Definition
| Milk proteins (caseins) unfold exposing hydrophobic residues. Texture becomes semi-solid (ie. yogurt). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proteases added to milk/cheese/yogurt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-digestive tract of unweaned animals or...
-from genetically modified bacteria |
|
|
Term
| what rennet does to caesins |
|
Definition
| cleaves into hydrophobic and hydrophilic components |
|
|
Term
| Hydrophobic components of milk proteins form... |
|
Definition
| a firmer “curd” characteristic of cheeses |
|
|
Term
| the part of milk proteins usually removed when making cheese |
|
Definition
| the hydrophilic component “whey” |
|
|
Term
| components separated to form cheese |
|
Definition
-hydrophobic solid curds
-hydrophilic liquid whey |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of SOFT CHEESES |
|
Definition
| -Cottage Cheese & Ricotta
-Coagulated by bacteria-often without rennet
-Curd is cooked (minimally)
-H2O content is >55%
-Whey is drained (partially) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| soft cheeses coagulated by... |
|
Definition
| bacteria-often without rennet |
|
|
Term
| soft cheeses coagulated by bacteria-often without... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Curd is cooked this much in making soft cheeses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| H2O content of soft cheeses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the whey is drained this much when making soft cheeses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| characteristics of SEMI-HARD CHEESES |
|
Definition
| -Muenster & Roquefort
-Coagulated by bacteria
-Rennet included
-Curd is cooked to 45-55% H2O content
-Aged (months)
*Hard cheeses are cooked to a lower water content and aged longer (ex. Cheddar). |
|
|
Term
| examples of SEMI-HARD CHEESES |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| SEMI-HARD CHEESES are coagulated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is rennet included in semi-hard cheeses? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how much the curd is cooked when making semi-hard cheeses |
|
Definition
| curd is cooked to 45-55% H2O content |
|
|
Term
| water content of semi-hard cheeses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how long cheese is aged when making semi-hard cheeses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| difference between semi-hard and hard cheeses |
|
Definition
| Hard cheeses are cooked to a lower water content and aged longer (ex. Cheddar). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do cheeses get their flavor and aroma? |
|
Definition
In all cheeses, casein catabolism generates by-products that confer characteristic aroma and flavor.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| In all cheeses, ______ generates by-products that confer characteristic aroma and flavor. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In all cheeses, casein catabolism generates ______ that confer characteristic aroma and flavor. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ break down casein into peptides and amino acids, which are taken into the bacterial cell by membrane transporters. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Extracellular enzymes break down ______ into peptides and amino acids, which are taken into the bacterial cell by membrane transporters. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Extracellular enzymes break down casein into ______, which are taken into the bacterial cell by membrane transporters. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Extracellular enzymes break down casein into peptides and amino acids, which are taken into the bacterial cell by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The bacteria involved in making cheese ______ amino acids into volatile alcohols and esters. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The bacteria involved in making cheese ferment ______ into volatile alcohols and esters. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The bacteria involved in making cheese ferment amino acids into... |
|
Definition
| volatile alcohols and esters |
|
|
Term
| In some cases, the volatile alcohols and esters produced by bacterial fermentation of amino acids combine with ______ to form methanethiol and other sulfur-containing odorants characteristic of cheese. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In some cases, the volatile alcohols and esters produced by bacterial fermentation of amino acids combine with sulfur to form... |
|
Definition
| methanethiol and other sulfur-containing odorants characteristic of cheese |
|
|
Term
| ______ are inoculated with fungal spores that germinate during ripening. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| MOLD RIPENED CHEESES are inoculated with ______ that germinate during ripening. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| MOLD RIPENED CHEESES are inoculated with fungal spores that ______ during ripening. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| MOLD RIPENED CHEESES are inoculated with fungal spores that germinate during... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where the fungal spores are put when making mold ripened cheese |
|
Definition
| either on the surface or internally |
|
|
Term
| fungi often used for making mold ripened cheese |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is the Penicillium species used to make mold ripened cheese the same Penicillium species used to make antibiotics? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| examples of mold ripened cheese |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the amount of live active cultures needed to be considered probiotic |
|
Definition
| about 100 million live active cultures per gram of product |
|
|
Term
| cheeses that may be probiotic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why are many yogurts considered probiotic and many cheeses are not? |
|
Definition
-water content
-harder cheese cooked to lower water content, lowering the microbial population in it
-rennet added to harder cheese, cleaving casein proteins, producing curds and whey; the whey is separated from hard cheese |
|
|
Term
| FOODBORNE ILLNESSES account for about ______ cases/year in U.S. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| FOODBORNE ILLNESSES account for about ______ hospitalizations/year in the U.S. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| FOODBORNE ILLNESSES account for about ______ deaths/year in the U.S. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some symptoms of foodborne illness |
|
Definition
-Cramping (sharp and stabbing)
-Nausea
-Vomiting
-Fever
-Loss of Appetite |
|
|
Term
| how long it takes someone to show symptoms of foodborne illness |
|
Definition
| 2-12 hours after initial exposure |
|
|
Term
| foodborne illness usually resolves... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the most common cause of foodborne illness? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| NOROVIRUS spreads rapidly in communities such as... |
|
Definition
-nursing homes
-daycares
-families |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Severe vomiting
-diarrhea
-fever |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Norovirus |
|
Definition
-Single stranded,+ RNA.
-Naked (hand sanitizers ineffective).
-Soap and water effective for “rinsing”-20 sec, including under nails.
-Virions can survive on surfaces & high heat up to 140°C.
-Destroyed by 5% bleach. |
|
|
Term
| the nucleic acid in Noroviruses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Are Noroviruses naked or enveloped? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| will hand sanitizers kill Noroviruses? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| will soap and water kill Noroviruses? |
|
Definition
yes
Soap and water effective for “rinsing”-20 sec, including under nails. |
|
|
Term
| How long should you wash your hands with soap and water to kill or get rid of Norovirus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hand sanitizers (alcohol) primarily kill microbes by... |
|
Definition
| destroying cell membranes |
|
|
Term
| why naked viruses are affected very little by hand sanitizers |
|
Definition
| because they do not have cellular membranes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Virions of Norovirus can survive on surfaces & high heat up to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| NOROVIRUS can be destroyed by ______ bleach. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what Norovirus does to the host |
|
Definition
Quickly damages intestinal epithelium
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how long it takes the host to recover from Norovirus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what removes Norovirus from the host? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Does Norovirus does replicate in food? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how foods and liquids can easily become contaminated with the virus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the communities that are at high risk of Norovirus |
|
Definition
| Communities eating/touching the same food source, such as buffets |
|
|
Term
| the therapy used to treat Norovirus |
|
Definition
There is no specific therapy other than supportive:
-Oral or IV rehydration
-Vaccines being evaluated in human clinical trials |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| microbial changes that render a product unfit or unpalatable |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what oxidation of fats does to food |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what decomposition of proteins does to food |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what alkalinity does to food |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what makes food taste sour? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| decomposition of proteins |
|
|
Term
| what makes food taste bitter? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can food spoilage occur when the microbe is not pathogenic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a type of bacteria that causes meat spoilage |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Meat spoilage occurs when... |
|
Definition
| certain flora grow to high numbers |
|
|
Term
| why exposure of meat to air can cause rapid growth of Pseudomonas |
|
Definition
| because Pseudomonas is aerobic |
|
|
Term
| Can Pseudomonas grow in the refridgerator (0-7˚C)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Initially, Pseudomonas metabolizes... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| After ______ metabolizes glucose, it will then degrade proteins, releasing ammonia and amines (foul smell). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| After Pseudomonas metabolizes ______, it will then degrade proteins, releasing ammonia and amines (foul smell). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| After Pseudomonas metabolizes glucose, it will then degrade ______, releasing ammonia and amines (foul smell). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| After Pseudomonas metabolizes glucose, it will then degrade proteins, releasing ______ (foul smell). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| After Pseudomonas metabolizes glucose, it will then degrade proteins, releasing ammonia and amines (______). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ allows Pseudomonas to penetrate into the meat. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does Pseudomonas degrading meat protein do to the pH? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how long it takes Pseudomonas to run out of glucose and start degrading meat protein |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The intimate association of two different species |
|
|
Term
| Whether positive or negative, both partners in a symbiotic relationship ______ in response to each other. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some types of SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATIONS |
|
Definition
-Mutualism
-Synergism
-Commensalism
-Amensalism
-Parasitism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| each partner species benefits from the other and often fail to grow independently |
|
|
Term
| can mutualism involve more than 1 microbial partner? |
|
Definition
yes
It can also involve one or more microbial partners with a plant or animal host. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| an intimate symbiosis between a fungus and an algae or cyanobacterium—sometimes both |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| algae wrapped in fungal mycelia for dispersal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In lichen, the algae provide... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In lichen, the fungi provide... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how lichen is mutualistic |
|
Definition
The algae provide photosynthetic nutrition.
The fungi provide minerals & protection. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-An optional cooperation where both species benefit, but can grow independently.
-Partners are also easily separated. |
|
|
Term
| difference between mutualism and synergism |
|
Definition
in mutualism, the partners tend to not do well without each other
in synergism, both partners benefit, but can do well without each other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the ______ of humans, many bacteria ferment, releasing H2 and CO2. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the lower GI tract of humans, many bacteria ______, releasing H2 and CO2. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the lower GI tract of humans, many bacteria ferment, releasing... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| bacterial species that ferments carbohydrates in the GI tract |
|
Definition
| Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron |
|
|
Term
| Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron ferments ______ in the GI tract |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron in the human GI tract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they convert H2 and CO2 to methane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Methanobrevibacter smithii |
|
|
Term
| Methanogens convert ______ to methane. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Methanogens convert H2 and CO2 to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the gut flora is synergistic |
|
Definition
Methanogens gain energy, bacteria have their end products removed.
*Both can grow independently. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Methanobrevibacter smithii |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
One species benefits, while the partner species neither benefits nor is harmed.
-This type of symbiosis is hard to define. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| geographical locations where water covers soil |
|
|
Term
| an example of commensalism |
|
Definition
| in wetlands, Beggiatoa oxidizes toxic H2S, removing it from the local environment
*Beggiatoa is not known to benefit from its neighbors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
One species benefits by harming the other.
Relationship is nonspecific |
|
|
Term
| what nonspecific means in the case of amensalism |
|
Definition
| it means the mechanism(s) of harm are generally broad acting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Streptomyces secrete broad-spectrum antibacterial compounds into the soil. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Streptomyces are amensalistic |
|
Definition
-they secrete broad-spectrum antibacterial compounds into the soil
-they may benefit from extra space to flourish, or in some cases they can consume bacterial cell contents |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
One species benefits at the expense of the other.
Relationship is usually obligatory for the parasite. |
|
|
Term
| are most parasites obligate or not obligate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Legionella
It is a parasite of macrophages and camouflages itself as a part of the endoplasmic reticulum. |
|
|
Term
| ______ is a parasite of macrophages and camouflages itself as a part of the endoplasmic reticulum. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Legionella is a ______ of macrophages and camouflages itself as a part of the endoplasmic reticulum. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Legionella is a parasite of ______ and camouflages itself as a part of the endoplasmic reticulum. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Legionella is a parasite of macrophages and camouflages itself as... |
|
Definition
| a part of the endoplasmic reticulum |
|
|
Term
| how Legionella camouflages itself as a part of the endoplasmic reticulum |
|
Definition
It coats itself with endoplasmic reticulum proteins so that the cell doesn’t realize the bacteria are there. The cell thinks the bacteria are simply part of the endoplasmic reticulum network.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some examples of marine symbiosis |
|
Definition
anemones, clams, and corals, acquire symbiotic algae & protists (other eukaryotic microbes)
most of this is mutualistic |
|
|
Term
| the partner organisms in CORAL SYMBIOSIS |
|
Definition
-Dinoflagellates (also called Zooxanthellae)
-Algae |
|
|
Term
| what microbes do to the coral |
|
Definition
| they photosynthesize and provide nutrients to reef coral |
|
|
Term
| something that contributes to coral color |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Symbiodinium ('Zooxanthellae') |
|
|
Term
| how do Zooxanthellae benefit from being inside coral? |
|
Definition
1: protection (symbiosome)
2: nutrients |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a host derived membrane that surrounds the Symbiodinium (Zooxanthellae) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| coral cytoskeletal elements |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the symbiosome, which is the coral membranes that houses the Symbiodinium (Zooxanthellae) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when coral bleaching occurs |
|
Definition
| when the coral is in abnormally warm waters (or under stress) |
|
|
Term
| some things that happen during coral bleaching |
|
Definition
| -Zooxanthellae leave the coral/expulsion.
-Coral loss of color.
-Coral food source lost.
-Coral prone to disease and death. |
|
|
Term
| bacterium that can infect coral and cause bleaching |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Vibrio shiloi bacteria are infectious to coral during... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Vibrio shiloi cause bleaching in coral |
|
Definition
| it causes death/growth arrest of Zooxanthellae |
|
|
Term
| where Vibrio shiloi reside during colder times |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ are attracted to coral mucus during warm periods. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Vibrio shiloi are attracted to ______ during warm periods. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Vibrio shiloi are attracted to coral mucus during... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the Vibrio shiloi infection cycle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Coral produce ______ during abnormally warm weather. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Coral produce protective mucus during... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the Vibrio shiloi bacteria adhere to coral via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Vibrio shiloi infects coral to cause bleaching |
|
Definition
| 1: Vibrio shiloi are attracted to coral mucus during warm periods.
2: The bacteria adhere to coral via a β-galactoside receptor.
3: Penetration and multiplication occur.
4: Express toxins that inhibit/kill Zooxanthellae.
5: Feeding worm may still serve as reservoir.
6: Toxins inhibit Zooxanthellae photosynthesis.
7: Coral bleaching occurs.
8: When the weather cools the toxin is not produced.
9: V. shiloi also does not adhere well to coral.
10: Zooxanthellae population is restored.
11: Warm temperature perpetuates cycle. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| multiplication and differentiation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infection of corals by feeding worms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| marine fireworm (winter reservoir and summer vector) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Toxin P production by V. shiloi |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| loss of zooxanthellae (coral bleaching) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| loss of bacterial superoxide dismutase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regaining of zooxanthellae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| composition of viral envelope |
|
Definition
-Host cell – phospholipids and proteins
-Viral glycoproteins |
|
|
Term
| advantage of virus using host membrane material |
|
Definition
| helps evade immune system |
|
|
Term
| the issue with making a vaccine for enveloped virus |
|
Definition
limited antigen targets
that is, the virus uses host antigens in its envelope, so targeting those antigens would also be targeting self |
|
|
Term
| what should be targeted when making a vaccine for an enveloped virus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some examples of enveloped viruses |
|
Definition
-HIV
-Herpesvirus
-influenza virus
-measles virus
-SARS-CoV-2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| budding of enveloped virus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytoplasmic membrane of host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| enveloped viruses are easier to ______ than naked viruses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why enveloped viruses are easier to sterilize than naked viruses |
|
Definition
| because they have a membrane that can easily be disrupted |
|
|
Term
| due to lipid bilayer, envelope viruses are more sensitive to... |
|
Definition
-Desiccation
-heat
-detergents
-alcohol
-Environmental conditions |
|
|
Term
| some ways to kill enveloped viruses |
|
Definition
-Desiccation
-heat
-detergents
-alcohol
-Environmental conditions |
|
|
Term
| the alcohol needed to kill enveloped viruses |
|
Definition
| usually at least 60% alcohol |
|
|
Term
| why enveloped viruses are sensitive to environmental conditions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why you must limit contact when dealing with enveloped viruses |
|
Definition
| because it's more sensitive than naked viruses |
|
|
Term
| easiest viruses to sterilize |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hardest viruses to sterilize |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why it's hard to vaccinate against enveloped viruses |
|
Definition
| because there's few antigens on it that are not host antigens |
|
|
Term
| the hardest viruses to vaccinate against |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the easiest viruses to vaccinate against |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some ways to vaccinate against an enveloped virus |
|
Definition
-Viral glycoprotein vaccine (subunit)
-DNA/RNA vaccine
-Live-attenuated virus
-Inactivated virus |
|
|
Term
| some ways to vaccinate against an enveloped virus using glycoproteins |
|
Definition
-Viral glycoprotein vaccine (subunit)
-DNA/RNA vaccine |
|
|
Term
| some ways to vaccinate against an enveloped virus using virus particles |
|
Definition
-Live-attenuated virus
-Inactivated virus |
|
|
Term
| Viral glycoprotein vaccine (subunit) |
|
Definition
uses viral protein as a vaccine
that is, it exposes host cells to specific virus protein so the host can make neutralizing antibodies against the viral glycoprotein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| introducing DNA/RNA to cells so the host can produce the virus-specific glycoprotein so host can make antibodies against it |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-weakened version of virus grown in another animal, such as a chick embryo, so that the virus envelope looks like that animal instead of a human
-the virus is then introduced to human so that neutralizing antibodies can be made |
|
|
Term
| advantage of using a live attenuated virus as a vaccine |
|
Definition
| can result in a larger, more protective response |
|
|
Term
| one virus that's being experimented with for DNA/RNA vaccine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some viruses for which a live attenuated virus has historically been used |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
killed version of virus → neutralizing antibodies to viral glycoprotein
Remove host membranes using detergents and centrifugation |
|
|
Term
| why it's hard to use inactivated viruses as vaccines for enveloped viruses |
|
Definition
| because you still have the host membrane |
|
|
Term
| the most effective ways to prevent getting an enveloped virus |
|
Definition
-sterilizing
-limiting exposure |
|
|
Term
| are there bacteria with genetic material that came from multicellular eukaryotes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What barriers exist for horizontal gene transfer between bacteria and multicellular eukaryotes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one difference between transcription in bacteria and transcription in eukaryotes |
|
Definition
| eukaryotes have introns, which are sequences that are transcribed, but spliced out of the mRNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where the RNA polymerase binds to the DNA and starts transcribing |
|
|
Term
| some differences in gene expression between bacteria and eukaryotes |
|
Definition
-Eukaryotes have introns
-the gene promoters are different
-etc. |
|
|
Term
| If DNA is transferred and is never transcribed or translated, will the host maintain this new DNA? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if the gene encoding that protein never gets translated, what will happen to it? |
|
Definition
| it will be mutated and eroded out of the genome; it won't be selected for |
|
|
Term
| the 2 cell types in eukaryotes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| become gametes, passed to offspring |
|
|
Term
| The bacteria ______ are endosymbionts of at least 20% of arthropods, and also nematode worms. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The bacteria Wolbachia spp. are ______ of at least 20% of arthropods, and also nematode worms. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The bacteria Wolbachia spp. are endosymbionts of... |
|
Definition
| at least 20% of arthropods, and also nematode worms |
|
|
Term
| one animal Wolbachia spp. is an endosymbiont of |
|
Definition
| fruit fly (Drosophila ananassae) |
|
|
Term
| If horizontal gene transfer occurred from an endosymbiont bacteria to the wing cell of a fruit fly, would the DNA be passed to the fly’s offspring? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If horizontal gene transfer occurred from an endosymbiont bacteria to the germ cell of a fruit fly, would the DNA be passed to the fly’s offspring? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The endosymbiotic theory suggests the origin of mitochondria is ______ that carries out oxidative metabolisms. |
|
Definition
| bacteria (probably members of phylum Proteobacteria) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 theories about how mitochondria became part of eukaryotic cells |
|
Definition
-autogeneous
-endosymbiosis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mitochondria are formed by splitting the genome in the nucleus of the eukaryotic cells. And that is part of genome is then enclosed by membranes and the evolved to current mitochondria. |
|
|
Term
| the most accepted theory on how mitochondria became part of eukaryotic cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| New mitochondria are formed only through... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Genome comparisons suggest a close relationship between mitochondria and... |
|
Definition
| Alphaproteobacteria (Rickettsial bacteria) |
|
|
Term
| Mitochondrial ribosomes are more similar to those of ______ than those of ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A membrane lipid cardiolipin is exclusively found in... |
|
Definition
| the inner mitochondrial membrane and bacterial cell membranes |
|
|
Term
| The genetic code used by mitochondria is more similar to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The size of mitochondria is similar to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Between ______ no new antimicrobial classes were discovered/produced. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the "new" antibiotics that came along between 1962 and 2000 |
|
Definition
| basically slightly modified versions of old antibiotics, targeting the same thing and working the same way |
|
|
Term
| when microbial resistance to drugs started developing |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the enzyme responsible for penicillin resistance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are multidrug efflux pumps specific or non-specific? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one way to prevent the bacterium from pumping out the antibiotic |
|
Definition
| using a drug that targets the efflux pump |
|
|
Term
| one strain of bacteria for which there is currently no treatment |
|
Definition
| Mycobacterium tuberculosis |
|
|
Term
| bacteria that seem to be the hardest to kill with medication |
|
Definition
| multidrug resistant bacteria |
|
|
Term
| some examples of multidrug resistant bacteria |
|
Definition
| -Mycobacterium tuberculosis
-MRSA
-VRSA |
|
|
Term
| 2 things an effective drug needs to do |
|
Definition
-Kill the bacteria or prevent infection
-Be specific to bacterial mechanisms to not be toxic to host |
|
|
Term
| Current antibiotic drugs target... |
|
Definition
-Cell wall synthesis
-Cell membrane integrity
-DNA synthesis
-RNA synthesis
-Protein synthesis
-Metabolism |
|
|
Term
| some things newer antibiotics may target |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some virulence factors newer antibiotics may target |
|
Definition
-Quorum sensing/Biofilm formation
-Toxin production
-Adhesins
-Scavenger molecules e.g siderophores |
|
|
Term
| an example of scavenger molecules |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| factors that make the bacteria good at infecting you |
|
|
Term
| a very deadly strain of E. coli |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| E. coli O157 can be deadly at ______ cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why E. coli O157 is so deadly |
|
Definition
| because they produce a very deadly toxin called Shiga toxin, which basically causes multi-organ failure eventually |
|
|
Term
| why targeting adhesins is a good idea in making antibiotics |
|
Definition
| because if the pathogen cannot bind to your cells and colonize, then it just gets flushed out |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules that bacteria send out to scavenge nutrients for them |
|
|
Term
| why targeting scavenger molecules is a good idea in making antibiotics |
|
Definition
| because is you prevent those molecules from being made, then those bacterial pathogens have a really hard time getting the molecules they need to grow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| scavenger molecules sent out by Mycobacterium tuberculosis to scavenge for iron |
|
|
Term
| how white blood cells kill Mycobacterium tuberculosis |
|
Definition
| engulfing it and limiting iron, making it unable to grow |
|
|
Term
| how one strain or Mycobacterium tuberculosis evades the immune system |
|
Definition
| by sending out siderophore molecules that go out, scavenge iron, bringing it back to tuberculosis, and allow it to grow within the white blood cell, thus evading the immune system |
|
|
Term
| Remove host membranes from inactivated virus using... |
|
Definition
| detergents and centrifugation |
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|
