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Psychology
Undergraduate 4
05/04/2012

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

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Term
Self-Concept
Definition
A person’s answers to the question, “Who am I?”
The content of the self, known aspects, our knowledge about who we are
Term
schema
Definition
Mental template by which we organize our worlds
Term
Spotlight effect
Definition
Belief that others are paying more attention to one’s appearance and behavior than they really are
Term
Bem’s self-perception theory
Definition
Infer our attitudes and feelings from past behaviors
1) remember past behavior 2) derive current attitude
when... Current attitudes or feelings are unclear
Pertinent past behaviors were intrinsically (because you wanted to) motivated
Term
developmental
cultural
gender based
Definition
What influences how we define our sense of self?
Term
Priming
Definition
Unattended stimuli that is processed implicitly, unconsciously
Activating particular associations in memory
Term
Representativeness heuristic
Definition
Tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary to odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member
Truck driver example
Term
Availability heuristic
Definition
Cognitive rules that judge the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory
The more easily we recall something the more likely it seems
Term
Confirmation Bias
Definition
Tendency to search for info that confirms one’s preconceptions
Term
Illusory correlation
Definition
Perception of a relationship where none exists or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists
Term
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Definition
Belief that leads to it’s own fulfillment
Term
Fundamental Attribution Error
Definition
Tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon other’s behavior
often negative
Tendency for observers to overestimate situational influences and underestimate dispositional influences upon their own negative behavior
Term
Kelly’s Theory of attributions
Definition
How people decide whether to make an internal (dispositional) or an external (situational) attribution.
requires multiple observations of behavior
Systematically note the pattern between the presence (or absence) of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs
focuses on consistency, distinctiveness, and concensus
Term
physical cues, salience, personality traits and context of judgement
Definition
What information taken from others do we use to form impressions
Term
Controlled processing of information
and Automatic processing of information
Definition
What types of processing directs our social judgments
Term
Controlled processing: Advantages
Definition
Make accurate conclusion by logic
Not as influenced by certain biases
Term
Controlled processing: Disadvantages
Definition
slow
cant handle much info
Term
Automatic processing: Advantages
Definition
quick and efficient, Many cases its more accurate then controlled processing
Can use information not provided by controlled processing
Term
Automatic processing: Disadvantages
Definition
Inaccuracies due to speed: Heuristics – mental shortcuts
Inaccuracies due to expectations: Confirmation bias & Illusory correlations
Inaccuracies due to Mood: Mood effects
Term
Schemas
Emotional reactions
Expertise
Unconscious thinking
Definition
Automatic processing uses information gained from what sources?
Term
Operant conditioning
Definition
Learned association between and specific behavior and reinforcement
Term
Classical Conditioning
Definition
Learned association between a neutral stimulus and a unconditioned stimulus
Term
Fishbein and Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior
Definition
three factors that best predict when planned, deliberate behaviors match reported attitudes:
specificity of the attitude
Not a general attitude, but an attitude towards a specific behavior

subjective norms
How the person believes their behavior will be viewed by others

perceived behavioral control
Ease with which people believe they can perform the behavior
Term
Cognitive Dissonance
Definition
tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions
To reduce this tension, we adjust our thinking

Insufficient justification
reduction of dissonance by
Term
affect, behavior, and cognition
Definition
Components of an attitude
Term

explicit

 (Attitudes we consciously endorse and can easily report

Measured by self-report )

 and implicit

 

(Involuntary, uncontrollable, unconscious evaluations

Measured by Implicit Association Text or IAT)

Definition
Types of Attitudes (2)
Term

when influences are minimal 

 When attitudes specific to the behavior are examined When attitudes are potent

Definition
When do attitudes predict behaviors? (3)
Term
Obedience
Definition
performance of an act at an authority figures request
Term
Acceptance
Definition
believing as well as acting according to social pressure
Term
Conformity
Definition
a Change in behavior due to the real or imagined influence of others
Term
Latane’s social impact theory
Definition
Conforming to normative pressures depends on
1) strength (personal importance)
2) immediacy (physical proximity
3) number of other people in a group
Term
group size
unanimity
cohesion
status
public response
no prior committment
Definition
What predicts conformity (6)
Term
normative and information influence
Definition
Why Conform (2)
Term
When the Situation Is Ambiguous.
When the Situation Is a Crisis.
when other people are experts
Definition
When do we conform due to informational influence (3)
Term
Persuasion
Definition
• Process by which a message induces changes in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors
Term
Sleeper effect
Definition
Delayed impact of a message that occurs when initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it.
Term
Discrepancy
Definition
When the message significantly diverges from the audience's opinion/behavior
Term
Primacy effect
Definition
there is a significant delay between when the audience receives the message then they must act upon that message
Information presented first usually has the most influence
Term
Recency effect
Definition
information presented last sometimes has the most influence
the audience needs to act immediately upon message
Term
reactance theory
Definition
strong prohibitions threaten a person's feeling of freedom, and the boomerang is an attempt to restore that feeling of freedom
Term
Central Route
peripheral route
Definition
Paths to persuasion (2)
Term
central route
Definition
Occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts
Term
1) The Communicator
Credibility
Attractiveness
2) The Message
Reason versus emotion
Discrepancy
One-sided versus two-sided appeals
Primacy versus recency
3) The Audience
Age
Thoughts concerning the message
Definition
Elements of persuasion (3)
Term
peripheral route
Definition
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speakers attractiveness
Term
Primacy versus recency
One-sided versus two-sided appeals
Reason versus emotion
Discrepancy
Definition
Factors that significantly impact the persuasiveness of the message (4)
Term
Group
Definition
two or more people, who for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence on another and perceive on another as "us".
Term
Social Facilitation
Definition
By the mere presence of others, dominant responses are strengthen whether correct or incorrect
Occurs when individual efforts can be evaluated
Term
social Loafing
Definition
Tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal
Occurs when an individual efforts can not be evaluated
Term
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Definition
Explains the relationship between physiological arousal and performance
Related to glucocorticoids- stress hormone
Inverted U
Term
Deindividuation
Definition
loss of a personal identity
Loss of self-awareness and evaluations apprehension
Occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad
Leads to a loosening of normal constraints on behavior and an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
Term
Group Polarization
Definition
• Group- produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies
• A strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group
Term
Zjonc's theory of social facilitation
Definition
three possible mechanisms behind increased physiological arousal: alertness, distraction and evaluation apprehension
Term
providing information
• helping us define our identity
• establishes social norms for behavior
Definition
Benefits to joining a group (3)
Term
• Social Norms
• Social Roles
• Group Cohesiveness
Definition
Functions of a group (2)/ Qualities of a group (1)
Term
• Arousing and distracting activities
group size
• Physical Anonymity
Definition
Factors affecting Deindividuation (3)
Term
In group bias
Definition
• Positive feelings and special treatment we reserve for people we have defined as being part of our in-group
• Negative feelings and unfair treatment we reserve for others simply because we have defined them as being in the out-group (groups which an individual does not identify with)
Term
Out-group homogeneity bias
Definition
• The perception that those in the out-group are more similar (homogenous) to each other than they really are
Term
Contact Hypothesis
Definition
• Merely bringing members of different groups into contact with each other will erode prejudice
Term
Prejudice
Definition
• Preconceived negative judgment of a group and its individual members
• Individual members are judge solely on their group membership
• Beliefs about the personal attributes of a group of people
supported by sterotypes
Term
Discrimination
Definition
• An unjustified negative or harmful actin towards a member of a group, simply because of his or her membership in that group.
Term
Stereotype
Definition
• A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members.
Term
Realistic Conflict Theory
Definition
• Limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in increased prejudice and discrimination
• Several historical studies documented that discrimination against out-groups correlates with the scarcity of jobs or other resources
used eagles and rattlers
Term
1. Mutual interference
• Situations where two or more groups needed each other and must depend on each other in order to accomplish a goal
2. A common goal that is important to both of them
3. Equal status of group members
4. Having informal interpersonal contact
5. Multiple contacts with several members of the out-group so that individuals learn that their beliefs are wrong
6. Social norms in place that promote equality
Definition
Allport’s conditions to be met for the contact hypothesis to be successful (6)
Term
Hostile aggression
Definition
Driven by anger and performed as an end in itself
Term
instrumental aggression
Definition
Aggression that is a means to some other end
Term
displacement
Definition
an unconscious defense mechanism whereby the mind redirects effects from an object felt to be dangerous or unacceptable to an object felt to be safe or acceptable
Term
Instinct theory/evolutionary psychology
biological
Definition
Innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species
• Buss, 2004 argues that aggression is genetically programmed into men to enable them to perpetuate their genes
Term
Neural influences
biological
Definition
• Abnormal brains can contribute to abnormally aggressive behavior
• Amygdala - brain structure associated with aggressive behaviors
Term
Biochemical influences
biological
Definition
• Alcohol
• Depresses social inhibitors
• Testosterone
• Low serotonin
Term
Frustration Aggression theory;
Behavior
Definition
Aggression as a Response to Frustration, frustration triggers a readiness to aggress
• Frustration
• Blocking of goal-directed behavior
Term
Relative Deprivation
behavioral
Definition
Perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself
• Explains why happiness tends to be lower and crime rates higher in communities and nations with large income inequality
Term
Social Learning Theory
Catharsis Theory
Definition
Freud Psychoanalytic theory
• More than just "blowing off steam", or "getting it out of your system"
• Aggression can be reduced by
• Performing an aggressive act
• Watching others engage in aggressive behavior
• Engage in fantasy aggression
• Many studies suggests that this is actually increases aggression, rather than decreasing it
Term
physical pain
other bodily comforts
arousal
Definition
Biological Factors that influence aggression (3)
Term
porn
video games
tv
Definition
Social Factors that influence aggression (3)
Term
Secure attachment
Definition
Best potential relationships
Term
Avoidant attachment
Definition
• Suppress relationships needs, trouble developing intimate relationships
Term
Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment
Definition
Concern that the partner will not reciprocate the desire for intimacy
Term
Self Disclosure
Definition
Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others
Term
Disclosure Reciprocity
Definition
Reciprocating same level of disclosure as your partner
Term
Mere Exposure effect
Definition
Increased exposure leads to increased liking
Term
Halo effect
Definition
• Tendency to believe that physically attractive people possess other good qualities
Term
Social Exchange Theory
Definition
• feelings about relationships determined by
• Rewards- costs
• Outcome
• Expectations [comparison level ]
• Satisfaction
• Chances for a better alternative relationship [comparison level for alternatives]
• Likelihood of staying
Term
Equity Theory
Definition
• Good relationship occurs when
• Person A's rewards - costs = Person B's rewards - costs
Term
Sternberg‘s Triangular Theory of Love
Definition
Three components of love
• Intimacy
• Passion
• Commitment
• Three components creates seven types of love relationships
Term
• Proximity, similarity , peciprocal liking, physical attratction
Definition
Factors that lead to attraction (4)
Term
symmetry, perfect average, golden ration
Definition
Characteristics used to measure beauty (3)
Term
Prosocial Behavior
Definition
• Any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person
Term
Altruism
Definition
• The desire to help another person even if it involves some personal cost to the helper
Term
Bystander Effect
Definition
• As number of bystanders ↑, probability of help ↓
Term
Door-in-the-face technique
Definition
• Strategy for gaining a concession
 After someone first turns down a large request, the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request
Term
• Evolutionary Theories
• i.e. Genetic Factors
• Social Exchange Theories
• i.e. Desire to ↑ rewards and ↓costs
• Empathy and Altrusim
• i.e. Pure Motive for Helping
Definition
Evolutionary Theories as to why we help 3
Term
• Behavior stems from the desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs
• How helping is rewarding
• Increase probability others will help us
• Relieve bystander distress
• Gain social approval and increase self-worth
Definition
Social Exchange Theory
Term
empathy leads to helping, regardless of costs or reward (altruism); no empathy results in behavior in accord with social exchange theory
Definition
Empathy and Altruism Theory
Term

number of bystanders,

time pressures,

similarity,

when someone else does

Definition
Factors that influence helping behaviors - Environmental (4)
Term
• Teaching moral inclusion
• Learning by doing
• Modeling altruism
Definition
Ways to socialize altruism (3)
Term
• Social Dilemmas
• Competition
• Perceived Injustice
Definition
What creates conflict (3)
Term
Misinformation Effect
Definition
Incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event after receiving misleading information about it
Term
Cross Race Effect
Definition
ID accuracy decreases when witness race is not perp race
Term
Guided imagery
Definition
• Therapists asks you to recall/ or imagine specific circumstances
• Recovered memories
• Sexual and childhood memories
Term
Imagination inflation
Definition
Imagining information increases the probability of reporting imaginary object or sequence of events as real
Term
Interrogation wording
Definition
False information, given during interrogation, may lead to false memory in eyewitness reports
Term
Cognitive Interview
Definition
used memory research findings to develop interview techniques for police
Term
Source Monitoring Framework
Definition
Determining the origin of a memory
• Separate from memory content
Term
Incomplete/ Vague Memory and false memory
Definition
Problems with memory (2)
Term
Encoding- Learning
Retrieval- Remembering
Definition
Basic components of memory (2)
Term
Sequential/ Simultaneous/ show up
Definition
Lineup Types
Term
Sequential Line up advantage
Definition
Eliminates identifications based on "best match"
Term
conservative shift
Liberal shift
Definition
Sequential Line up:
Simultaneous line up:
Term
Physiological arousal
Cross Race Effect (CRE)
Lineup Procedure
Definition
Phenomena affecting eyewitness identification (3)
Term
Correlational research
Definition
Naturally occurring relationships among variables
Term
Experimental Research
Definition
Seeks clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more variables
Term
Independent variable
Definition
Experimental factor that a researcher manipulates
Time, what they were thinking about, religiosity
Term
Dependent variable
Definition
Variable being measured, depends on manipulations of the IV
Whether or not they stopped for the man
Term
Extraneous Variable
Definition
Variable that affects the DV and is not the IV
Term
Random Assignment
Definition
All participants have the same chance of being in a given condition
Helps to eliminate extraneous variables
Term
Internal Validity
Definition
The degree to which a casual relationship between the IV and the DV is demonstrated without interference
Are your measure reliable and valid?
Term
External Validity
Definition
The degree to which an experimental finding applies to people and situations beyond its sample and single observation
Generalizability
Term
Description (what?)
Prediction (when?)
Understanding (why?)
Definition
Scientific method
Goals (3)
Term
social psychology
Definition
scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. (Social thinking, Social influence, Social relations)
Term
personality psychology
Definition
focuses on individual; how differences in character traits influence behavior
Term
sociology
Definition
Focuses on group; how various overarching factors (e.g. class conflict, competition btw ethnic groups) influence general patterns of behavior; concerned with topics such as: social class, social structure, and social institutions
Term
social tuning
Definition
the process whereby people adopt another person’s attitude so as to get along with that individual
Term
Schater’s two-factor theory of emotion
Definition
Emotions are derived from 1.physiological arousal 2. Explanation for that arousal
Term
Self-regulatory resource model
Definition
effortful self-control depletes our limited willpower reserves. Our brains “central executive” consumes available blood sugar when engaged in self-control; suggests that having plenty of energy will enhance your ability to control you actions.
Term
through introspection;
1. Inaccurate assessment
2. Accurate but incomplete assessment
3. Problems can lead to faulty
Definition
Ways to gain self knowledge (3)
Drawbacks to each method
Term
behavior, enviornment, nonverbal communication, and appearance
Definition
Types of information used to form impressions (from people) (4)
Term
Role Playing
Saying Becomes Believing
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
Evil and Moral Acts
Definition
Behaviors that change attitudes (4)
Term
schemas and categorization influence prejudice
Definition
How prejudice arises,
Term
Faulty Memory Processes/Problems Processing Information
Definition
How prejudice persists
Term
subtyping
Definition
perceivers respond to members of a target group who disconfirm their stereotypes by seeing them as exceptions to the rule and placing them in a separate subcategory apart from members who confirm the stereotype
Term
subgrouping
Definition
perceiver's organization of information in terms of clusters of individuals based on their similarities and differences
Term
sterotype threat
Definition
experience of anxiety or concern in a situation where a person has the potential to confirm a negative stereotype about their social group.
Term
prisoners dilemma
Definition
Prisoner B stays silent (cooperates) Prisoner B confesses (defects)
Prisoner A stays silent (cooperates) Each serves 1 month Prisoner A: 1 year
Prisoner B: goes free
Prisoner A confesses (defects) Prisoner A: goes free
Prisoner B: 1 year Each serves 3 months
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