1.    study of biological variation

a.     helps us to explain what it means to be human

1.    theory that the earth’s features are the result of long-term processes that continue to operate in the present just as they did in the past.

a.     Forces like wind, water erosion, local flooding, frost, etc… contributed in the past to produce the landscape we see today

b.    Indicated that Geological change was still happening and that the forces were uniform over time

Deep Time

the immense time scale that changes perceptions of the earth’s history from a few thousand to many millions of years

a.     Permitted the necessary time depth for the process of evolutionary change

1.    How do Darwin’s finches provide examples of the principles of natural selection?

a.     The different size and form of the finches’ beaks showed that they had adapted to different food sources. All of the finches in their respective islands showed that one type of beak was preferred, or naturally selected, over another.

a.     All Species capable of producing offspring at a faster rate than food supplies increase

b.    Biological variation within all species

c.     More offspring are produced than can survive + limited resources = competition

d.    Favorable variations or traits have advantage (fitness)

e.    Environment determines which traits are favorable

f.      Traits are inherited and passed on to the next generation

g.    Successful variations accumulate in a population, so that generations may be distinct from ancestral ones (new species appear)

h.     Geographical isolation contributes to the formation of new species (adaptation to diff. environments)

a.Directional – one extreme selected for

b.Stabilizing – both extremes selected for

c.Oscillating – all over the place

a.Cenozoic Era includes:

i.Miocene 23 mya

ii.Pliocene 5 mya

iii.Pleistocene 1.8 mya

iv.Holocene 0.01

1.    critical mechanism of evolutionary change

a.     Genetic change(s) in frequencies of certain traits in populations due to differential productive success between individuals

b.    Depends on:

                                               i.     Reproductive competition

                                              ii.     Variation in fitness (reproduction/how well adapted)

                                             iii.     Heritability – has to be inherited by offspring

1.    the belief that life-forms couldn’t and didn’t change

1.    the number of offspring an individual produces and rears to reproductive age; an individual’s genetic contribution to the next generation 

a change in the genetic structure of a population. It’s also used to refer to the appearance of a new species

1.    the branch of science concerned with the rules of classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships

categories of the geological time scale; subdivisions of periods. In the Cenozoic era, epochs include the Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene… 

a.     Challenged the theory that the earth was the center of the universe

a.     (1707-1788) French naturalist

b.    Dynamic relationship between the external environment and living forms

c.     Different regions have unique plants and animals

d.    Animals come from a center of origin

a.     Swedish naturalist who developed methods of classifying plants and animals

b.    Establish binomial nomenclature

c.     Created taxonomy – four level system (reproduction, physical similarities, class and order)

a.     Introduced the concept of extinction to explain disappearance of animals represented in fossils

b.    Believed in fixity of species

c.     Proposed catastrophism

                                               i.     Belief that the earth’s geological features are the results of sudden, worldwide cataclysmic events

                                              ii.     Suggested that a series of regional disasters occurred

World's leading "fossilists"

- Contributed to the understanding of the evolution of marine life

- discovered complete fossil of Ichthyosaurus

a.     British Naturalist

b.    Suggested that current species were descended from other species and that the appearance of new ones was influenced by environmental factors

c.     Described evolution as a process driven by competition and natural selection

d.    Co-discoverer of natural selection

a.     1797-1875

b.    Lawyer, geologist, considered the founder of modern geology

c.     Wrote Principles of Geology and illustrated the effects of uniformitarianism

d.    Uniformitarianism – idea that earth’s features are the result of long term processes

e.    Emphasized that the earth must be older than people thought

f.      Concept of deep time - changed the framework within which scientists viewed the geological past

g.    Contradicted catastrophism

a.     The inheritance of acquired characteristics/use-disuse theory

                                               i.     If an external environment changed, animal’s activity would also change to accommodate new circumstances

                                              ii.     Result in the increased or decreased use of body parts over time

                                             iii.     New trait would be passed on to offspring

                                            iv.     Genetically incorrect theory

a.     (1766-1834)

b.    English economist who wrote An Essay on the Principle of Population that influenced Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace in their discovery of natural selection

c.     Argued that the availability of resources determined population size

d.    Animal populations increase in numbers when resources are plentiful and when there are not many predators

e.    Argued that the lack of resources would always be a constant source of misery and famine for humankind if population continued to increase

a.     Founded the theory of natural selection after he arrived at the Galápagos islands

b.    Wrote “On the Origin of Species”

c.     Sample finches illustrated common ancestry, but also the ability to change through time

d.    Finches changed due to different islands and varying diets

1.    RNA (mRNA, tRNA) how are they different from DNA?

a.     RNA is the single-stranded molecule similar to DNA

b.    mRNA = messenger RNA

c.     tRNA = transfer RNA

d.    DNA is the double-stranded molecule that contains the genetic code

e.    DNA connot leave the nucleus

f.      RNA has ribose, DNA has deoxyribose

1.    Sickle cell anemia – as example of point mutation, and relation to malaria

a.    Sickle cell anemia is an example of point mutation because it is a result from a defect in the beta chain and point mutation definition is that there’s a change in one of the four DNA bases

b.    The relation of sickle cell anemia to malaria is that if you do have a sickle-cell trait, then you have greater resistance to malaria than people with normal hemoglobin

                                              i.     Provides protection against malaria

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

DNA found in the mitochondria. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother

Somatic cells 

all the cells in the body except those involved with reproduction

Nucleotides

basic units of the DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of four DNA bases

a change in DNA. A molecular alteration in genetic material, and the only way to produce new genetic material.

discrete structures composed of DNA and proteins found only in the nuclei of cells. Chromosomes are visible under magnification only during certain phases of cell division

indicators of the genetic makeup of an interbreeding group of individuals known as population.

 Sex-linked traits

a.Controlled by genes on the X or Y chromosome

b.X linked traits are much more common

i.Queen Victoria & Hemophilia

a.     Stole the helix DNA molecule structure from Rosalind Franklin

a.     Trisomy – a condition in which an extra copy of a chromosome is present in the nuclei, causing developmental abnormalities

b.    3 copies of a chromosome

c.     Trisomy 21

d.    1/1000 live births

e.    Advanced maternal age

f.      Respiratory infection

g.    Leukemia

h.     Mental impairment

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

a.     Where in the body each takes place

                                               i.     Meiosos: only in gametes (sex cells)

                                              ii.     Mitosis: only in somatic cells

b.    What types of cells are produce/DNA makeup of the daughter cells, etc.

                                               i.     Meiosis

1.    Two divisions

2.    Four daughter cells that each have 23 chromosomes

3.    Resulting gametes can pair up with another gamete to create a zygote with a full set of chromosomes (half from each parent)

                                              ii.     Mitosis

1.    One division

2.    Two identical daughter cells that are genetically identical to the original cell and have 46 chromosomes

Physical structure of DNA, properties of the DNA code, what does DNA do?

a.     DNA is composed of 2 chains of smaller units called nucleotides

                                               i.     Nucleotides made up of 3 components

1.    Sugar molecule (deoxyribose)

2.    A phosphate

3.    Group ( a molecule composed of phosphorous and oxygen

4.    And one of four nitrogenous bases

                                              ii.     Nucleotides stacked up on top of one another to form a chain that is bonded by its bases to another nucleotide chain. Together, the 2 chains twist to form a helix shape

1.    Adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine

                                             iii.     The sugars and phosphates represent the two sides, while the bases and the bonds that join them form the rungs

b.    DNA directs all cellular activities

Mendel’s Genetic Principles (of inheritance)

a.     Segregation

                                               i.     Genes occur in pairs because chromosomes occur in pairs

                                              ii.     During gamete production, members of each gene pair separate so each gamete contains one member of a pair

                                             iii.     During fertilization, the full number of chromosomes is restored.

                                            iv.     Depends on:

1.    Chromosomes carry the hereditary material

2.    Sex cells are formed through meiosis

b.    Dominance

                                               i.     Dominant traits are governed by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another, allele

1.    Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles.

c.     Recessiveness

                                               i.     Recessive traits are not expressed in heterozygotes

1.    For a recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of the allele.

d.    Independent Assortment

                                               i.     Particles or genes that control different traits (ex: pea color or pea texture) assort independently of each other during gamete formation

1. Factors that produce and redistribute variation

a.     Mutation

b.    Gene Flow

c.     Genetic Drift

d.    Recombination

The Modern Synthesis (two stage process of evolution) 

a.     The production and redistribution of variation (inherited differences among organisms)

b.    Natural selection acting on this variation, whereby inherited differences, or variation, among individuals differentially affect their ability to successfully reproduce

Know how Mendel’s experiments with pea plants demonstrate his genetic principle

a.     Dominance & Recessive

                                               i.     F1 and F2 generation

1.    Short (t) plants did not disappear, the allele was simply masked by the dominant (T) allele

b.    Independent assortment: crossed plants that bred true for two traits

Effect of environment on phenotypes (e.g. Height)

a.     Height is affected on phenotype by childhood nutrition (an environmental factor)

b.    Other environmental factors:

                                               i.     Exposure to sunlight

                                              ii.     Altitude

                                             iii.     Temperature

                                            iv.     And increasing levels to toxic waste and pollutants

1.    Mendelian vs. Polygenic traits

a.     Mendelian

                                               i.     Influenced by one gene

                                              ii.     Expression not usually influenced by environment

                                             iii.     Distribution of phenotypes into just a few discrete categories (e.g., in complete dominance with two alleles, there are just two phenotypes)

b.    Polygenic Traits

                                               i.     Influenced by more than one gene

                                              ii.     Expression may be influenced by environment

                                             iii.     Distribution of phenotypes is continuous with no discrete categories (many phenotypes can be distinguished)

1.    governed by an allele that can be expressed in the presence of another allele

a.    Dominant alleles prevent the expression of recessive alleles

1.    characteristics that are influenced by alleles at only one genetic locus

a.     Many blood types such as ABO

b.    Genetic disorders like sickle-cell anemia

Recessive traits

recessive traits are not expressed in heterozygotes

a.for a recessive allele to be expressed, there must be two copies of the allele

- exchange of genes between populations

- introduce and re-introduce genes into a population

- can make distant populations more similar to each other, reducing the change of speciation

evolutionary changes, or changes in allele frequencies, that are produced by random factors in small populations. Genetic drift is a result of small population size.

a type of genetic drift in which allele frequencies are altered in small populations that are taken from, or are remnants of, larger populations

a small group leaves to colonize a new area, thus bottleneck occurs. Population size decreases and genetic variation is reduced

a diagram showing family relationships; is used to trace the heredity pattern of a particular genetic (usually Mendelian) trait.

1.    governed by dominant alleles located on the autosomes (any chromosome except X or Y)

a.    Achondroplasisa. Form of dwarfism 

1.    situation where a single gene influences more than one phenotypic expression

a.     E.g. The autosomal recessive disorder phenylketonuria

a.Laid down basic principles of heredity

b.He explored the ways physical traits could be expressed in plant hybrids

1.    Theodosius Dobzhansky

a.Importance of mutations in adding variation

a.Biological species concept: individuals capable of interbreeding, but reproductively isolated from other such groups.

a.     evolutionary systematics – ancestors and descendants are traced in time by analysis of homologous characters

b.    cladistics – attempts to make rigorous evolutionary interpretations based solely on analysis of certain types of homologous characters.

a.     Refer to the adaptive potential of a particular trait

b.    Generalized – trait that’s adapted for many functions

c.     Specialized – trait that’s limited to a narrow set of functions

1.    Phylogenetic systematics and Cladistics

a.     Two major types of classification

b.    PS: uses homologous characteristics to make hypotheses regarding evolutionary relationships as well as ancestor-descendant relationships and shows the latter through time as a phylogenetic tree

c.     Cladistics – uses only specific sorts of homologous characteristics (derived ones) and doesn’t attempt to make ancestor-descendant conclusions or show evolutionary relationships through time; conclusions are shown in a cladogram

Principles of classification

a.     Homologies – similarities based on descent from a common ancestor

b.    Analogies – similarities based on common function, with no assumed common evolutionary descent

c.     Homoplasy – the separate evolutionary development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms

segments of genes that are transcribed and are involved in protein synthesis

segments of genes that are initially transcribed and the deleted. Because they aren’t expressed, they aren’t involved in protein synthesis

1.    a life form rapidly takes advantage of the many newly available ecological niches

a.     A species, or group of species, will diverge into as many variations as two factors allow. Factors

                                              i.     Adaptive potential

                                             ii.     The adaptive opportunities of the available niches 

having different kinds of teeth; characteristic of mammals, whose teeth consist of incisors, canines, premolars, and molars

idea that change accumulates gradually in evolving lineages

a.“missing links” present in fossil record

The concept that evolutionary change proceeds through long periods of stasis punctuated by rapid periods of change.

a.No missing links between species; gaps are real, not artifacts of an imperfect fossil record

indicate branching orders, timing of speciation events, history of events

a.     Provide the basis for identifying and classifying organisms taxonomically

b.    They explain why species evolve specific adaptations

similarities between organisms based on descent from a common ancestor

1.    similarities between organisms based strictly on common function, with no assumed common evolutionary descent

1.    the separate evolutionary development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms

referring to an evolutionary group (clade) composed of descendants all sharing a common ancestor

Allopatric Speciation

a.     Living in different areas

b.    Important factor in the divergence of closely related species from each other and from each other and from their shared ancestral species because it leads to reproductive isolation

a.Free exchange of genes between two populations of organisms living indirectly adjacent but environmentally different habitats 

Derived (modified) traits 

referring to characteristics that are modified from the ancestral condition and this diagnostic of particular evolutionary lineages

a.     Limbs and locomotion

                                               i.     A tendency toward an erect posture (derived trait)

b.    A flexible, generalized limb structure, which allows most primates to practice various locomotor behaviors (ancestral trait)

c.     Prehensile hands  (able to grasp) (derived trait)

                                               i.     Retention of five digits on the hands and feet (ancestral)

                                              ii.     An opposable thumb and, in most species, a divergent and partially opposable big toe

                                             iii.     Nails instead of claws

                                            iv.     Tactile pads enriched with sensory nerve fibers at the ends of digits (derived)

d.    Diet and teeth

                                               i.     Lack of dietary specialization. (ancestral trait)

                                              ii.     A generalized detention (ancestral trait) Primate teeth aren’t specialized for processing only one type of food, a characteristic related to a general lack of dietary specialization

e.    The senses and the brain

                                               i.     Rely heavily on vision and less on sense of smell

                                              ii.     Color vision (derived)

                                             iii.     Depth perception – stereoscopic vision (derived)

a.     Eyes placed toward the front of the face/binocular vision

b.    Visual information from each eye transmitted to visual centers in both hemispheres of the brain

c.     Visual information organized into three dimensional images by specialized structures in the brain itself

                                            iv.     Decreased reliance on olfaction

                                             v.     Expansion and increased complexity of the brain

                                            vi.     Maturation, learning, and behavior

                                           vii.     Tendency to live in social groups

a.     Squirrel monkeys

b.    Uakari

c.     Capuchins

d.    Muriqui

a.     Most quadrupedal and arboreal

b.    All belonging to the Cercopithecidae family

c.     Divided into subfamilies, the cercopithecines and the colobines

1.    New vs. Old World Monkey traits

a.     Shape of the nose

b.    New world monkeys have broad noses with outward facing nostrils

c.     Old world monkeys have narrower noses with downward facing nostrils

                                               i.     Have areas of hardened skin on their buttocks called ischial callosities that serve as sitting pads, which make it possible to sit and sleep on tree branches for hours at a time

d.    Platyrrhine (flat nosed) and catarrhine (downward facing nose)

1.    What are traits of Hominoids that separate them from the monkeys?

a.     Larger body size

b.    Absence of a tail

c.     Shortened trunk

d.    More complex behavior

e.    More complex brain

f.      Increased period of infant development and dependency

What traits do anthropoids (monkeys, apes, humans) have that makes them distinct from lemurs and lorises?

a.     Larger brain and body size

b.    Reduced reliance on the sense of smell

c.     Greater degree of color vision

d.    Bony plate at the back of the eye socket

e.    Different female reproductive anatomy

f.      Longer gestation and maturation periods

g.    Fused mandible

Primate dental formula 

a.     Old world monkeys – 2.1.2.3 (upper) /2.1.2.3 (lower)

                                               i.     2 incisor, 1 canine, 2 premolars, 3 molars

b.    New World Monkeys – 2.1.3.3.

                                               i.     2 incisor, 1 canine, 3 premolars, 3 molars

Classification of Primates

a.     Primates

                                               i.     Strepsirhini (lemurs and lorises) & Haplorhini (tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans)

1.    What special traits do lemurs and lorises have? Where are they found?

a.     Strong reliance on olfaction reflected by presence of moist, fleshy pad at end of nose

b.    Eyes placed more to the side of the face

c.     Differences in reproductive physiology

d.    Shorter gestation and maturation period

e.    Have ‘dental comb’ – forward projecting lower incisors and canines

                                               i.     Used in both grooming and feeding

f.      Retention of a claw (grooming claw) on the second toe

g.    LEMURS

                                               i.     Found only on the island of Madagascar and adjacent islands off the east coast of Africa

                                              ii.     Only non-human primates on Madagascar

h.     LORISES

                                               i.     Tropical forest and woodland habitats of India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Africa

                                              ii.     Nocturnal

1.    Where can you find Orangutans?

a.     Heavily forested areas of Borneo and Sumatra (Indonesia)

1.    Some distinctive traits of gorillas, chimps, humans

a.     Gorillas

                                               i.     Largest of all living primates

                                              ii.     Vegetarian

                                             iii.     Tend to be placid and quiet

b.    Chimpanzees

                                               i.     Found in equatorial Africa, in a broad belt from the Atlantic ocean in the west to Lake Tanganyika in the east

                                              ii.     Frequently excitable, active, and noisy

                                             iii.     Live in large communities ranging from 10-100 individuals

c.     Humans

                                               i.     Dependence on vision

                                              ii.     Decreased reliance on olfaction

                                             iii.     Flexible limbs and grasping hands

                                            iv.     Increased brain size

                                             v.     Dependent on culture

                                            vi.     Spoken language

                                           vii.     Ability to write

                                          viii.     Habitual bipedal locomotion

members of the primate infraorder Anthropoidea

- includes monkeys, apes, and humans

numerical device that indicates the number of each type of tooth in each side of the upper and lower jaws; indicates the number of each tooth type in each quadrant of the mouth

 – a hormonally initiated period of sexual receptivity in female nonhuman mammals correlated with ovulation

a.     Serve as visual cues to males that females are sexually reproductive

What are some factors that influence primate social structure and how?

a.     Body Size

                                               i.     Large animals are better able to retain heat and their overall energy requirements are lesser than that of smaller animals

                                              ii.     Smaller animals generally have a higher Basal Metabolig Rate (the rate at which the body uses energy to maintain all bodily functions at resting state than large animals)

                                             iii.     Require energy rich diet (high protein: insects, fats, nuts and seeds, carbohydrates: fruits and seeds.)

b.    Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)

                                               i.     Metabolism – the rate at which the body uses energy to maintain all bodily functions at a resting state

                                              ii.     Smaller animals have a higher BMR than larger ones

c.     Diet

d.    Distribution of Resources

e.    Predation

f.      Relationships with other, nonpredatory species

g.    Dispersal – members of one sex leave the group in which they were born (their natal group) about the time they become sexually mature

1.    Know some of the major primate social activities/behaviors

a.     If primates are in a social group, then it benefits them in the event of predator attacks

b.    Multimale-female groups are advantageous where predation pressure is high

c.     The social behavior communication-autonomic response by raised body hair

d.    Vocalization and branch shaking are examples of deliberate communication

e.    Reassurance is communicated through hugging or holding hands.

Life history characteristics of primates 

a.     Characteristics or developmental stages that typify members of a given species and influence potential reproductive rates

b.    Influence primate social structure

                                               i.     Length of gestation

                                              ii.     Length of time between pregnancies

                                             iii.     Period of infant dependency and age at weaning

                                            iv.     Age of sexual maturity

                                             v.     Life expectancy

1.    Dominance hierarchy

a.     Higher ranking animals have greater access to food and mating partners than lower ranking individuals

b.    Serve to reduce the amount of actual physical violence

c.     Lower ranking individuals are unlikely to attack or threaten a higher ranking one

d.    Dominant animals can frequently exert control with threatening gestures

e.    Rank/status can be measured by access to resources

f.      FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SOCIAL STATUS

                                               i.     Sex

                                              ii.     Age

                                             iii.     Aggression

                                            iv.     Time in group

                                             v.     Intelligence

                                            vi.     Motivation

                                           vii.     Mother’s social position

1.    Inter-sexual selection vs. Intra-sexual selection

a.     Intrasexual selection – selection within the same sex

b.    Intersexual – selection between the two sexes

1.    the study of the evolution of behavior, emphasizing the role of ecological factors as agents of natural selection. Behaviors and behavioral patterns are favored by natural selection when they increase the reproduction fitness of individuals in specific environmental contexts.

a.     Some behaviors are influenced by genes and are subject to natural selection the same way physical characteristics are

living in the same area; pertaining to two or more species whose habitats partly or largely overlap.

a.Provides a way to maximize access to food while reducing competition between different species

the total area exploited by an animal or social group; usually given for one year or for the entire lifetime of an animal

Sequences of repetitious behaviors that serve to communicate emotional states. Nonhuman primate displays are most frequently associated with reproductive or agonistic behavior.

individuals produce only a few young, in whom they invest a tremendous amount of parental care

1.    large numbers of offspring are produced but parents invest little or no energy in infant care

a.     Insects

b.    Most fish

c.     Mice

d.    Rabbits

a mating system characterized by an association between a female and more than one male (usually two or three), with whom she mates. Among non-human primates, this pattern is seen only in marmosets and tamarins. Males participate in infant care.

1.    the portion of a home range containing the highest concentration and most reliable supplies of food and water. The core area is frequently the area that will be most aggressively defended.

term for members of the evolutionary group that includes modern humans and now extinct bipedal relatives

A pattern of evolution in which the rates of evolution in one functional system vary from those in other systems

The study of ancient humans

Objects of materials made of modified for use by hominins. The earliest are usually made of stone, or occasionally bone.

the study of how bones and other materials came to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils

Place that has yielded the finest quality and greatest abundance of paleoanthropological information concerning early hominin behavior. Located in Serengeti Plain of northern Tanzania

now part of the genus paranthropus. Zinjanthropus cranium was discovered by Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in 1959.

Louis and Mary Leaky conducted continuous excavations from the 1930s to the early 1980s at Olduvai Gorge

tells us that something is older or younger than something else, but not by how much

Dating technique that gives an estimate in actual numbers of years; also known as absolute dating

Behavioral aspects of human adaptation, which includes: technology, traditions, language, religion, marriage, patterns, and social roles. (set of learned behaviors  enhanced from one generation to the other)

1.    Relative dating method that applies only to bones. Bones incorporate fluorine throughout fossilization; therefore, bones deposited at the same location and time should have the same amount of fluorine. Useful only with bones found at the same location.

1.    a relative dating technique based on the regular changes seen in evolving groups of animals as well as the presence of absence of particular species.

Dating method based on the earth’s shifting magnetic pole

Technique for dating certain archaeological materials (such as stone tools) that were heated in the past and that release stored energy of radioactive decay as light upon reheating.

Radiometric method. Contains a half-life of 5,730 years. Used to date organic materials, such as: bones wood, cloth, and plant remains. Applies to later stages of hominin evolution. Range is less than 1,000-75,000 years (accuracy is reduced for materials more than 40,000 years old). 

Stable Carbon Isotopes

isotopes of carbon that are produced in plants in differing proportions, depending on environmental conditions. By analyzing the proportions of the isotopes contained in fossil remains of animals (who ate the plants), it’s possible to reconstruct aspects of ancient environments (particularly temperature and aridity)

Microliths

1.    small stone tools usually produced from narrow blades punched from a core; found especially in Africa during the latter part of the Pleistocene

Pressure flaking

a method of removing flakes from a core by pressing a pointed implement (bone or antler) against the stone

Microwear

 polishes, striations, and other diagnostic microscopic changes on the edges of stone tools

Phytoliths

microscopic silica structures formed in the cells of many plants, particularly grasses

Environmental determinism

an interpretation that links simple environmental changes directly to a major evolutionary shift in an organism. Such explanations tend to oversimplify the evolutionary process.

1.    Theories for bipedalism

a.     Ability to carry objects (and offspring);

hunting on the ground;

gathering of seeds and nuts;

feeding from bushes;

improved thermoregulation;

having a better view of open country (to spot predators);

walking long distances

and provisioning by males and females with dependent offspring

Habitual bipedalism

bipedal locomotion as the form of locomotion shown by hominins most of the time

Obligate bipedalism

hominins are committed to bipedalism and cannot locomote efficiently in any other way

1.    Morphological changes associated with bipedalism

a.     Highly derived feet( large toe is enlarged and put in line with the rest of the toes, longitudinal arch is formed which helps to absorb shock and adds a propulsive spring)

b.    Repositioning of the foramen magnum underneath the skull so that the head is more or less balanced on the spine(this requires less robust neck muscles to hold the head upright.)

c.     The spine has two distinctive curves -- a  backward(thoracic) one and a forward(lumbar) one that keep the trunk (and weight) centered above the pelvis

d.    The pelvis is shaped more in the form of a basin to support internal organs.

e.    The lower limbs are elongated (for example, human thigh = 20% of body height, while gorilla thigh = 11% of body hieght)

f.      Femur is angled inward, which keeps the legs more directly under the body; modified knee anatomy also permits full extension of the knee joint. 

Os Coxae

Iliac blades, are shorter and broader in humans, which stabilizes weight transmission as we walk upright.

Foramen Magnum

the opening at the base of the skull through which the spinal cord emerges

Pre-Australopiths

earliest and most primitive hominins (7.0-4.4 mya)

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

                                               i.     Where: Chad

                                              ii.     When: 6-7 mya

                                             iii.     What found: nearly complete cranium.

                                            iv.     Characteristics: Flat face, bipedal placement of the foramen magnum, massive brow ridges, small brain 350cc

Orrorin tugenensis

                                               i.     Where: Tugen Hills, Kenya

                                              ii.     When: 6 mya

                                             iii.     What Found: thigh, arm ,lower jaw ,teeth.

                                            iv.     Ape-like Features: chimp like teeth, postcranial climbing adaptations.

                                             v.     Hominin Features: bipedal, thick tooth enamel.

Ardipithecus Ramidus  (2 species)

                                               i.     Where: Ethiopia

                                              ii.     When: 5.8-4.4 mya

                                             iii.     What: teeth, foot bones, cranial bones, upper forelimbs.

1.    2 Species:

a.     Kadabba-> Ape like features: canine sharpened against premolar. Hominin features: bipedal, thick enamel.

b.    Ramidus-> Ape-like features: small molars thin enamel. Hominin features: incisor-like canines, forward placement of foramen magnum

Australopiths

Major features that all australopiths share

                                              i.     They are clearly bipedal (although not necessarily identical to Homo in this reguard)

                                             ii.     They all have relatively small brains (at least compared to Homo)

                                           iii.     They all have large teeth, particularly the back teeth, with thick to very thick enamel on the molars

                                           iv.     A. afarensis conlusively a habitual biped, not necessarily precludes arboreal behavior altogether though. Avg. brain capacity is 438 cm cubed. Some individuals(males?) have cranial capacity of 500 cm cubed while other individuals(females?) have a cranial capacity of only 375 cm cubed. 

Australopithecus anamensis

                                              i.     Time period: 4.2 - 3.9 mya, the earliest australopiths

                                             ii.     Location: East Africa and from a couple sites in northern Kenya.

                                           iii.     Major Characteristics: Postcranial pieces clearly indicate bipedal locomotion. However, has some primitive features in dentition including a large canine and a sectorial first premolar. These fossils more primitive than all the later members of the genus Austrolapithecus.

a.     Australopithecus afarensis - 3.6 - 3.0 mya

                                              i.     Found in sites of Hadar( in Ethiopia) and Laetoli( in Tanzania)

                                             ii.     A. afarensis knee joint resembles human knee, suggests bipedalism.

1.    Black skull

2.    Lucy

3.    Laetoli

4.    Dikka Child

a.     Paranthropus boisei

                                              i.     Where: East Africa

                                             ii.     When: 2 mya

                                           iii.     Characteristics: small cranial capacity(510-530 cm cubed), extremely robust in terms of teeth & jaws, sagittal crest

Paranthropus robustus

 Where: South Africa When: 2-1.2 mya Characteristics: Small cranial capacity,  also very robust in terms of teeth & jaws(but not as much as P. boisei), saggital crest.

Australopithecus africanus

2.5-2.0 mya, South Africa, They were small brained ( adult cranial capacity of 440 cm cubed), big-toothed (though not as much as Paranthropus), well-adapted bipeds.

Laetoli footprints

(Tanzania) 75 ft trail of hominin footprints. 3 individuals. Found by Mary Leaky and colleagues, 3.5 my bp. Made in ash; stayed well perserved—; (Laetoli Footprints 3.5 mya) 75 ft trail, three individuals, impression patterns clearly show bipedal locomotion.

Lucy

(Lucy 3.2 mya) Has ape-like skull but bipedal locomotor pattern. Discovered at Hadar in 1974, belongs to A. afarensis

Black Skull

a.     Where: Northern Kenya

b.    When: 2.5 my bp

c.     Genus/Species: Paranthropus aethiopicus

Taung child

discovered in 1924. The endocast is in back with fossilized bone mandible and face in front. A. africanus. Very first early hominin discovery from Africa( or anywhere else for that matter)

Dikika child

a.     3.3-3.2 mya

b.    large part of skeleton discovered in 2001.

c.     Immature A. afarensis.

d.    3 years old. "mixed" locomotion

e.    Feet suggest walking curved fingers and scapula suggest arboreal ease.

f.      Dikka Child 3.3-3.2 mya) foot and lower limb indicate terrestrial bipedalism,  yet shoulder and curved fingers suggest arboreal ease. Teeth quite primitive, canines are large and pointed, lower first premolar is semisectorial, teeth rows are parallel and even

g.    converging somewhat toward the back of the mouth.

1.    a ridge of bone that runs down the middle of the cranium like a short Mohawk. This serves as the attachment for the large temporal muscles, indicating strong chewing. 

Brow ridges

aka supraorbital tori (torus for singular) characteristic in a robust form of varying degrees  of: Homo erectus, Sanhelanthropus tchadensis, and Paranthropus aethiopicus among others.

a.     "handy man" Plio-Pleistocene(5.0-1.0 mya) hominin at Olduvai Gorge, significantly larger brain than Australopithecines. Referred to as early Homo, dubbed Homo habilus by Louis Leakey and colleagues. Shows an increase in cranial size of about 20% over the larger of the Australopithecines. Associated with Oldowan( earliest known stone tool industry), Leakey argued H. habilus were early Olduvai toolmakers. H. habilus material at Olduvai gorge dates to 1.8 mya.

a.     1.8 mya - 100 kya

b.    Headed north from Kenya to Republic of Georgia to Dmanisi, in the Caucasus region.

c.     Had a low forehead, large brow ridges(supraorbital tori), large back teeth, shovel shaped incisors, thick cranial bones, sagittal ridge, nuchal torus, broad skull base, and cranial capacity of 700-1250 cm cubed(25% increase relative to Early Homo.) Body size dramatically increased relative to earlier hominins(esp. increased robusticity).  

a.     What found: Nearly complete skull of H. erectus

b.    When: 1.8 mya

Nariokotome

a.     What: most complete H. erectus skeleton ever found(WT15000)

b.    When: dated to 1.6 mya

a.     What: four crania and several postcranial bones coming from at least four individuals( note that skull and postcranial bones not necessarily from same individuals)

b.    When: 1.8-1.7 mya

a.     What: Skull cap

b.    When: 1.6-1.0 mya

Ngangdong

a.     What: very late survival of H. erectus, contemporary of H. Sapiens. fourteen individuals' fossils found

b.    When: 50-25 kya

Zhokoudian

a.     What: 14 skullcaps, other cranial pieces, and more than 100 isolated teeth, but only a scattering of postcranial elements

                                               i.     hominin remains belong to upward of 40 adults and children and together

b.    Largest, most famous sample of H. erectus, wide age range of individuals, shows some H. erectus populations were well adapted to temperate(cold) environments. 40 male and female adults and children found

c.     When: 780-(?)400,000 kya

Atapuerca, Spain 

a.     oldest evidence of hominins in western Europe, possibly not Homo erectus. partial jaw with a few teeth(Sima del Elefante)

b.    When: dated to 1.2 mya

Difference between Asian and African erectus

a.     East African specimens are not as buttressed at the brow ridge and nuchal torus and have thinner cranial bones than those found in Asia. The African and Asian populations are seperated by more than 1 million years.

1.    Middle Pleistocene

a.     780,000 - 125,000 years ago

b.    most premodern human populations replaced H.  erectus in the Old World. Long period of coexistence in Southeast Asia of H. erectus and premodern humans. Early premodern humans similar to H. erectus, but have some features that were more derived. They possessed an increased brain size, a more rounded braincase, a more vertical nose, and a less angled back of the skull(occipital). 

Upper Pleistocine

a.     aka Late Pleistocene, 125,000 - 10,000 years ago, end of H. Heidelbergensis, appearance and disappearance of Neanderthals and appearance of Homo sapiens. 

1.    Pleistocene environmental change 

a.     due to glaciation and interglacials,glaciation results in colder temperatures in northern latitudes and more arid conditions in southern latitudes(notably in Africa).Interglacials result in those northern latitudes becoming warmer and the said souther latitudes becoming wetter.

Homo heidelbergensis

a.     600,000 - 125,000 years ago

b.    Found in South and East Africa, England, France, Spain, Germany, and Greece in Europe, and China in Asia.

c.     Morphology: occipital region is less angulated, the cranial vault bones are thinner, and the cranial base is essentially modern, increased cranial capacity, reduced tooth size, and parietal expansion.Kabwe (significance, what found, when from)

1.    Kabwe 

a.     When: 600-125

b.    What: Nearly complete cranium, cranial fragments of second individual, miscellaneous postcranial bones

1.    Bodo

a.     When: Middle Pleistocene (600,000 ya)

b.    What: Incomplete skull, part of braincase

c.     Significance: Earliest evidence of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa.Cut marks similar to those found in butchered animals.Defleshed by other hominins

Atapuerca

a.     oldest evidence of hominins in western Europe, possibly not Homo erectus.

b.    What: partial jaw with a few teeth(Sima del Elefante)

c.     When: dated to 1.2 mya

1.    Heidelbergensis in Asia

Dali

Jinniushan

1.    Levallois tool technique

a.     premodern humans in Africa and Europe – for controlling flake size and shape, resulting in a “turtle back” profile

1.    Required several complex and coordinated steps, suggesting increased cognitive abilities in later premodern populations

Homo neandertalensis

La Chapelle-aux-saints 

 (120,000 – 100,000 ya) 78 broken skeletal fragments from 6 individuals Bones were processed, defleshed and disarticulated Deer bones processed in the same way

Neanderthal cannibalism

Krapina, Croatia 

Shanidar 1 

1.    Mousterian tool technique

Homo sapiens

Omo I 

Herto, Ethiopia 

Skhul 5 

Qafzeh 6 

Cro Magnon 

Châtelperronian

was the earliest industry of the Upper Palaeolithic in central and south western France, extending also into Northern Spain. It derives its name from the site of la Grotte des Fées, in Châtelperron, Allier, France. It arose from the earlier, Mousterian industry. It made use of the Levallois technique of lithic reduction (stone-knapping) and lasted from between c. 35,000 and c. 29,000 BP. 

1.    Magdalenian

1.    Upper Paleolithic changes in human tools and symbols

1.    Solutrean Stonework

Punch blade technique

a.     (1) A portion is removed from the core

b.    (2) The objective is to create a flat surface called striking platform

c.     (3) The core is struck by the use of a hammer and punch (made of bone or antler) to remove the long narrow flakes called blades

d.    (4) Or the blades can be removed by pressure flaking

e.    (5) The result/product can be used as knives or other tools.  

Dolni Vestonice and Predmosti

                                               i.     (27,000-26,000 ya in the Czech Republic)

                                              ii.     Found small animal figures were fashioned from fire clay, ceramic technology. 

a.     Lascaux Cave

                                               i.     (France) immense wild bulls=Great Wall of Bulls; and horses and deer, and other animals were drawn in yellow, black , red.

a.     Altamira (Spain)

                                               i.     walls and ceilings filled with bisons in red and black. Images can reflect religous or magical, visual communication, or simply art.

a.     Grotte Chauvet

                                               i.     France, 35,000 ya

                                              ii.     through radiocarbon dating, during the "Aurignacian") Images include dots, stenciled human handprints, many animals representation

a.     Apollo 11 Rock shelter site

                                               i.     (Africa Namibia, 28,000 & 26,000 ya) painted slabs. 

1.    Flores hominids

a.     Homo floresiensis

b.    (95,000-13,000 ya)

c.     Southeast Asia, Flores (Indonesia).

d.    H. floresiensis. Late survival of very small-bodied and small-brained hominin on island of Flores; designated as different species from modern humans. 

Complete Replacement Model 

"Out of Africa", recent African Evolution. Developed by British paleoanthropologists Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews. Proposes anatomically modern populations arose in Africa in the last 200 ky. Migrated from Africa, completely replacing populations in Europe and Asia. Does not accont for the transition from archiac H. sapiens to modern H. sapiens anywhere except Africa. Between 100-200 kya, modern humans arose in Africa and spread outward to replace Neanderthals and other pre-modern humans. Little or no gene flow between Neanderthals.

Regional Continuity Model 

(Associated with paleoanthropologists Milford and Wilpoff of the University of Michigan) Populations in Europe, Asia and Africa continued evolutionary development from Archaic H. sapiens to anatomically modern humans. Gene flow links human populations  H. erectus/egaster eveolves in modern H. sapiens. Regional variation apparent amongst different human populations. Morphological resembllances exist between modern humans and archaic H. sapiens in each region  because of a continuous line of descent.

Partial Replacement Model

Günter Brauer - Postulates the earliest dates for African modern H. sapiens at over 100 kya. initial dispersal of H. sapiens sapiens from S. Africa was influenced by  environmental conditions. Moving into Eurasia, modern humans hybridized with resident groups, eventually replacing them. The disappearance of archaic humans was due to hybridization and replacement. 

Olduwan tool industry

chopping tool industry; earliest known tool industry

Aechulian tool industry

Invented about 1.4 mya(after emigration of H. erectus from Africa). Core was worked on both sides, called a biface(known widely as a handaxe or cleaver), biface had a flatter shape than rounder earlier Oldowan cores. In Acheulian culture raw materials transported more consistently for longer distances, whereas in Oldowan all stone tools were found very close to their raw material sources.  Biface was the  "Acheulian Swiss army knife" , used to cut, scrape, pound, and dig.

a.     hunters or hunted

b.    whether they used and controlled fire

c.     whether it was a trap or home