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| comparison of at least two views or explanations of the same thing |
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| thinking about thinking, assumptions, methods, goals |
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| a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
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| the way an issue or a questions is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments; 90% chance of living vs. 10% chance of dying |
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| a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal (2) expressive behaviors (3) conscious experience |
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| understanding so intimate that the feelings, thoughts, and motives of one are readily comprehended by another |
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| a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it |
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| self perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for examples, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life. |
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| adaptation-level phenomenon |
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| our tendency to form judgements (of sounds of light, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience |
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| over justification effect |
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| the effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward rather than intrinsic interest as the motivation for performing the task. |
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| a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemisty, such as blood glucose, around a particular level. |
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| the point at which an individuals "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight |
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| a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self report inventories and peer reports |
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| a DM where the individual indirectly and unassertively expresses aggression towards others. |
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| a newer understanding of short term memory that involves conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of info retrieved from long-term memory |
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| an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory |
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| retention independent of conscious recollction. |
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| memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare |
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| the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. |
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| the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
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| the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
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| the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. |
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| incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event |
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| a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin.) |
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| a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier but also more error-prone use of heuristics |
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| a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions. |
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| a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. |
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| the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual function; an impediment to problem solving |
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| estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common |
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| representativeness heuristic |
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| judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information. |
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| the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid |
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| clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
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| the tendency to be influences by a suggested reference point, pulling our responses towards that point. |
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| researches by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky; losing $100 produces a feeling of negativity that is more intense that the feelings of elation produces by a gain of $100 |
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| when something becomes an object of our possession we consider it to have more value. |
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| decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. |
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| biological growth process that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience |
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| interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas |
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| adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
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| an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development |
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| zone of proximal development |
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| the difference between what a child can do independently and what the child can do with assistance from adults or more advanced peers |
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| the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritablility of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied |
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| a random error in gene replication that leads to a change |
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| the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect. |
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| th tendency for cision to dominate the other sense. |
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| the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) |
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| an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. |
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| a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another |
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| analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
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| information processing guided by high level mental processes as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations |
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| the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time |
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| conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. |
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| the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) an in experiments on the effect or experience on brain development |
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| tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue |
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| two lima bean sixes neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. |
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| the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example temperature or wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle |
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| one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. |
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| learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) |
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| the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response |
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| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (ucs) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (cs); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
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| the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response |
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| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal |
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| in operant conditioning, any event that strengths the behavior it follows |
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| a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. for example, after explorin a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it |
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| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
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| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
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| through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed (prewired) to learn some associations more easily than others |
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| in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material |
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| in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analust of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent) |
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| systematic desensitization |
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| a type of counterconditioning that assoicates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli |
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| the finding for similar efficacy for widely different therapies |
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| a disorder that appears in childhood, and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others states of mind. |
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| fundamental attribution error |
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| the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition |
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| foot-in-the-door phenomenon |
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| the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request |
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| cognitive dissonance theory |
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| the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes |
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| stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others |
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| he tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable |
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| the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity |
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| the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group |
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| the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives |
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| the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame |
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| a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior |
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| the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them |
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| the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present |
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| shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. |
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| occurs when people's erroneous expectations lead them to act towards others in a way that brings about the expected behaviors, thereby confirming their original impression |
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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
(Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) |
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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and
behaviors. |
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| a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other |
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| a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
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| a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies. |
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| two variables are so intertwined that we cannot determine which one has influenced a dependent variabl |
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| a method involving the detailed study of, for example, the output of the media, speeches, and literature. |
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| based on suzanne kobasa's research, a stress-protective factor among people with high stress jobs involving their commitment, control, and challenges |
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function: motor movement, alertness, attention
deficit: parkinson's disease
excess: schizophrenia |
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function: mood regulation, hunger, sleep
deficit: depression |
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| the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events |
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| a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports. |
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| the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors. |
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