Which of the following psychological processes generally require “system 2” thinking?

Our ability to perceive complete objects (e.g. a running dog), despite having separate neural systems for detecting color, motion, etc., is known as:

Which functions are most characteristically implicated in the functioning of the temporal lobe?

hearing, language processing, object identification

Which of the following statements is true about consonants and vowels?

Consonants are formed by hindering air on its way out of your body; vowels are formed by vibrating the vocal folds.

Measurements of cognitive functioning show that on average, from early adulthood onward, which of the following aspects of brain functioning deteriorate?

                                   iii.     long-term memory

Stimulus generalization:

• support/challenge behaviorist principles?
• example

support

fear responses to tones similar to tones previously paired with shock stimuli    

Probabilistic learning

• support/challenge behaviorist principles?
• example?

support

Wasserman’s pigeons pecking red, white or green lights according to imperfect correlations in training

Gradual learning over many trials rather than sudden "insights"

• support/challenge behaviorist principles?
• example?

support

Thorndike’s cats getting out of puzzle boxes

prepared learning

• support/challenge behaviorist principles?
• example?

challenge

study of taste aversion

The two halves of the brain communicate with one another via commissures, the largest of which is the ___________.

• the language one speaks determines or heavily influences the thoughts one can think or the saliency of different categories of thought

Descartes: mind and body are separate

-through the pineals gland

discordant monozygotic twin design 

example?

study of identical twins raised in the same family, one of whom had been bullied and the other who had not. Results showed that the twin who had been bullied was more depressed and anxious than the twin who had not been bullied

Looking-time studies have concluded that infants under 12 months:

Piaget found that children couldn’t pass the “three mountain task,” used to measure egocentrism, until age 7. Since then, researchers have simplified this task and found that children can pass it by age 3. What does this imply?

The extraneous features of Piaget’s task, not egocentrism per se, made it harder for children to pass

empiricist-nativist debate

Chomsky defends...

a.     (from birth to about 2 years), the child gradually achieves object permanence; the child starts passing A-not-B tasks.

What’s unusual about number cognition and language among the Pirahã people?

b.     They do not have a specific word for, for example, “two” or “five”

What does Bill Labov’s research suggest about American dialects?

 Local dialects develop despite of the influence of mass media

• Mimic a neurotransmitter and block neurotransmitters from binding to postsynaptic receptors

•     Destroy neurotransmitters in the synapse

• Block the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell

• Participants have to sort cards by one rule, and then have to change the rule.
•  Success requires the use of prefrontal cortex.
•  Both young children + patients w/damage to prefrontal cortex, tend to fail it (or its developmental variants, for children).

c.     Conversers should be as informative as necessary

Which is true regarding brain systems involved in waking up?

Light hits melanopsin receptors in ganglion cells of the retina, sending activation to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).

The difference in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin is detectable in the brain as you think

 crucial feature of behavioral geneticists’ use of twin study designs to examine heritability?

They compare the traits or behaviors of monozygotic and dizygotic twins, who share their environments to the same extent (almost) but who differ in their genetic similarity

According to Karpicke & Roediger, who studied learning consequences of different studying regimens, which is the most time-efficient way to learn vocabulary words?

in each learning session, study only the ones you got wrong last time, but test yourself on all of them.

Which region of the brain is most important for cognitive control?

clear example of deductive inference?

All live pigs grunt.  Wilbur is a live pig. Therefore, Wilbur grunts.

what would helpful in answering how to use a common object in a novel way?

 neurobehavioral benefits of healthy sleep?

d.     Cognitive speed

"natural kind"

example

what part of a neuron receives signals from other neurons? 

The "Strange Situation” paradigm has been used to measure differences in _______

  allow for vision under low-light conditions

Cognitive dissonance

How can it lead to attitude change?

• an aversive psychological state that arises due to a conflict between your beliefs/attitudes and actions, or between two beliefs/attitudes

• can lead to attitude change because we are motivated to eliminate this conflict, thereby reducing the experience of dissonance

"Foot in the door technique"

How could it be used in real-world setting? 

A way to avoid falling victim to it?

method for eliciting compliance w/ a burdensome request; relies on people's desire to stay consistent with their behavior; increasingly larger requests after a small one

ex: salesman or Jim Jones' cult leader: increasing requests (eventually led to 900 people sacrificing their lives)

relative differences in mate preferences between men and women?

Reasons, from an evolutionary perspective?

Men care more about physical attractiveness; women care more about social status/wealth

Men not as invested in offspring but do care about health/fertility of woman; women want mate to provide resources

Men prefer younger (have more offspring)

How is experience of fear generated?

Based on three theories of emotion

James-Lange: sight prompts physiological body response unique to fear; interprets bodily arousal as fear

Cannon-Bard: sight triggers brain activity that simult. causes non-specific arousal -> subjective exper. of fear

Schacter-Singer: sight causes non-specific bodily arousal; cognitively assesses to determine it's a fear-inducing situation; interprets arousal as fear

implicit association tests

what have we learned from them?

press 1 of 2 keys for a particular stimulus and then press 1 of 2 keys for positive or negative word

most have implicit biases (ex. "bad" more easily associated with African American names)

attitudes are not single entities; can have implicit biases w.out explicit projudice

studied universality of facial expression; westerners interpreted expressions of Papua New Guinean (vice versa)

Most emotions recognized across cultures

(but cultures have diff. "display rules" - rules for displaying emotions)

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

how do they regulate our body temp. to maintain homeostasis

sympathetic: prepares body for action (inc. heart rate, digestion slowed)

Parasymp: restores internal act. to normal after action (decr. heart rate, restore digestion)

Body triggers para. when hot (efforts to lose heat via evap.+ vasodilation - widen skin capillaries); and triggers symp. when cold (efforts to maintain heat via vasoconstriction + sweat cessation)

some cues that determines when we start and stop eating

why so many?

• liver regulates glucose supply; sendis hunger/satiety signals re. gluc supply
• stomach walls have receptors sensitive to nutrients in digestic juices; communicate nutrients' presence for us to stop eating
• fatty tissues secrete leptin into bloodstreatm when we're full; inhibits appetite stimulating neurochemicals; hypothalamus detects/responds 
• if 1 fails we can still survive; some for short-term + long-term; diff. cues monitor diff. aspects of food intake

comparative method

How was it used to study aggressive behavior?

researchers make systematic comparisons among diff. species to learn about function/origin of a behavior

used to study aggression in animals --> animal males more aggressive; human males more physically aggressive (women can be more verbally/socially aggres.)

relationship between testosterone + phys. aggres.; more compl. in humans

Takers: try to get as much as they can from others; give hardly anything in return

Givers: enjoy helping others; no strings attached

Matchers: strike equal balance of give/take

Takers rise quickly but also fall quickly; partly b/c matcher engage in prosocial gossip warning others about takers

Worst performers often are givers; BUT givers are overrepresented at both extremes of success

(more likely to be at top and bottom than at middle)

Givers tend to learn more than both takers and matchers; gain more expertise in the time they spend helping others; energizes them to think more creatively

reputation advantage

often rely on matchers to take out takers/compensate for their giving

Good way to spot takers?

"Projection biases"

Lesson from Adam Rifkin?

(best LinkedIn networker)

To be a successful giver:

lots of small favors that benefit others at low cost for self; makes lots of introductions/referrals

sticks to his specific way of helping people; stick to way that uses your strength so you help others efficiently

Professor Grant's exercise "run a reciprocity ring"

benefits?

people have to ask for help and others offer a way to help

Gets people comfortable with asking for help; diff. from taking; build culture of help-seeking

Takers thus forced to act as givers 

helps people realize we're better off if everyone is giver

personality trait of those who stick w/ same goal over long time

passionate about same thing and consistent w/ interests; high perseverance

do not abandon tasks to seek novelty, in face of obstacles

specific learning goal in mind; goal about weaknesses rather than strenghts; seek immediate/informative feedback; repeat until mastery; full attention when practicing

happens when alone more than w/ people

Phenomenology

According to Maslow, what is self-actualization and what are traits of self-actualizers?

study of individuals' unique, 1st person, conscious experience; central to humanistic psychology

full realization of one's potential; people who are realistically oriented, accepted themselves/others, spontaneous, cared more about problems they're working on than themselves; meaningful relationships

humanistic: we all have impulse to self-actualize

when fully engaged in what you are doing at the moment that they lose themselves in their work

(even temporary unawareness of hunger/thirst/time)

Csikszentmihalyi: most likely when optimal balance between the challenge and one's skills to meet it

self-efficacy

significance?

belief that you can perform the behaviors that will lead to particular outcomes

when high, you behave in ways that lead to rewarding outcomes due to more persistance and tolerance of frustration; when low, you believe yourself incapable (might not try)

"character strengths"

(as identified by Peterson and Seligman)

significance?

positive personality features that contribute to one's happiness w/out diminishing happiness of others

appear to be associated w/ many positive life outcomes; also matter for one physiological functioning + health

Professor Duckworth's study: predictor of National Spelling Bee performance?

are these predictors related or independent?

intelligence and deliberate practice (d.p. predicted by grit)

independently predicted

grit and IQ are quite different; if anything, slight negative correlation

choose your talents and interests based on what you are passionate about

work extremely hard at those things, especially the specific aspects of your performance tht need improvement

self-handicapping

is it found more in some cultures?

self-preservation strategy; people create obstacles to their own performance so they can attribute their failures to them, rather than to their own limitations

less common in collectivist cultures

(people less motivated to view themselves as better than others)

Milgram examined factors that could potentially reduce conformity rates

which were NOT effective?  general lesson from Milgram and Asch's studies on conformity?

examined factors like gender, experiment's location, etc.

(found NOT effective in reducing conformity)

Shock experiment: subjects complied less when a confederate show dissent --> people need model for resisting authority

Milgram conformity study in 60s not relevant today?

Study that shows people still show such conformity today?

not changed much

2010 study using a celebrity as authority figure; learner answered questions as part of game show; participant told to shock learner if they answered ? wrong

(80% complied)

Zimbardo's study of why ordinary people are capable of evil things on a large scale

factors that envourage such behaviors?

real-world example?

starts w/ ideology; small, seemingly insignificant steps; leader appears just at first; vague rules/redefinition of words; highlight models of compliance; allow some dissent but enforce behavioral compliance; hard to exit

Jim Jones; leader of Jonestown cult

Spearman proposed: g = mental attribute used in any intellectual task

hierarchical: intelligence has many components; highest level = g; people also have more specialized talents (linguistic, numerical, etc. ability); people have much more specialized abilities (fast-paced mental tasks, etc.)

both theories correct: g used for everything; specialized abilities --> consistency of performance is imperfect

both at mid-level of intelligence hierarchy; alongside verbal/quantitative/spacial skills

fluid: ability to deal w/ new/unusual problems (height in early adulthood)

crystal.: acquired knowledge (increase w/ age)

alcohol/fatique/brain damange: more impairment in fluid than crystallized dependent tasks

"bystander apathy" in ambiguous situations

Latane and Darley propse as 3 potential explanations:

3/4 investigated smoke when alone; much less likely when w/ 2 confederates; also unlikely when w/ other participants

1) audience inhibition: embarrassed to be wrong in front of others

2) social influence on interpret.: maybe others know something I don't

3) diffusion of responsibility: needs doing, but why me?

What do Tomasello's studies on children's helping behavior suggest about altruism?

Is it just self-serving in the end?

children helped w/ nothing in return

also perceived intentions

(picked up pin when man "dropped" it but did nothing when he intentionally threw it down)

Social nature of children VS social nature of our closer relatives (i.e. apes)

are these inter-species difference in helping behavior? in social intelligence?

children outperform chimps on tasks of social intelligence, but not on those of physical intelligence

chimps beat kids on hidden toy task b/c kid pays attention to uninformative social cue and chimp watches the reward under the cup

child succeeded in imitation task of balloon (chimp failed)

how do between-group differences and within-group differences relate to intelligence?

 Any differences between men and women's performances on cognitive tasks?

between group diffs. might reflect environmental factors; within-group might reflect genetic variation

Men better at visuospatial tasks; women better at verbal tasks (esp. w/ clear+fluent writing) --> oversimplifications

Big Five personality factors

How are they measured?

How are they useful in describing a person?

OCEAN: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

measured through self-report or informant data

have dimensions to allow for description of any combo. of traits; can be thought of as hierarchical (each factor made of facets -> behavorial tendencies measured as specific behaviors)

Is persoanlity biologically determined?  

What does the heritability of terperament suggest?

Example of how genes could affect personality?

Temperament highly heritable; monoz. twins more similar than dizyg. twins

genetic code predisposes us to certain behavioral tendencies

e.g. those w/ inhibited temper (ass. w/ introversion, neuroticism, fear of novelty): lower threshold for activation of amygdala (involved in threat detection)

Symptoms of autism 

reasons why diagnosis is so difficult

disorder usually diagnosed in young children; range of developmental problems (restricted/repetitive behavior, abnormal socialization/communication)

difficult since no simple test; clinicians observe the child's behavior/development; huge variation among normal children

hypotheses for causes of autism

typical treatment

evidence that is has a large genetic component

most focus on biological dysfunction; some propose abnormalities in amygdala functioning or cerebellum; others propose abnormalities in braun function allowing children to understand other's thoughts/intentions)

treated w/ behavior modification; builds on shaping and reinforcment; not very effective meds.

Facts about suicide

• 3rd leading cause of teenage death
• Most teens that commit suicide have psychological disorders
• Most between age 18-34 are impulsive acts
• Rates depend on availability of means to do it
• US women more likely to attempt, but men use lethal methods to succeed 

Positive: not evident in healthy people (delusions, disorganized behavior)

Negative: absence of behaviors usually seen in healthy people (flattened affect, catatonic behavior, social withdrawal)

Cognitive: impairments in executive functions (impaired sensory processing, episodic memory, working memory, attentional control)

a genetic predisposition, a period of diminished oxygen supply to newborn, and a variety of prenatal viral infections may contribute

clear genetic contribution: runs in families, evidence from twin/adoption studies

both psychotherapy ("talk therapy") and pharmocotherapy (antidepressant drugs)

more severe: electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or deep-brain stimulation (DBS) if that fails

different major classes of antidepressants

known mechanisms of action of differen antidepressants

-Most common:seratonin selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRI); safer/fewer side effects; block reuptake of seratonin to prolong its time in synapse + increase post-synaptic effect

-non-selective reuptake inhibitors: block reuptake of many neurotrans. inc. seratonin+norepinephrine)

-atypical antidep: dopaminergic effect; MAOIs block enzymatic breakdown of moamine by inhibiting oxidase casuing their breakdown

How do depressed people's brains look relative to non-depressed people's?

Examples of cognitive differences between depressed + non-depressed people

What might they imply?

Fewer gross anatomical diffs. compared to other disorders (e.g. schizo.)

cognitive diffs in: reward sensitiviting or "liking" (depr. people show impaired reward learning); motivation/anhedonia or "wanting"; attention, perception, and memory

imply that diff. aspects of brain functioning may play role in depression

bip. dis. incl. either mania/hypomania (neither present in depression)

depressive episodes of bipolar disorer are similar to depression

bip. dis. - stronger genetic components + more genet. overlap w/ disorders like shcizo.

bip. dis.= life-long; while depr. is chronic/recurrent or single-episode

exposure and response prevention (EXRP): cognitive behaviortal treatment that exposes OCD person to the stimulus they fear + then prevent them from doing compulsive behavior

medication: affect seratonin levels to take the "edge" off obsessions; no proven added benefit to EXRP

most common in industrialized nations; dramatically increasing since 1960s; high morbidity rates due to suicide

Differences: anorexia refusal to maintain normal weight; bulimia = binge + compensation

-establishing regular eating pattern to counteract dietary restriction that puts individual at risk for binging/purging

-psychoeducation: helps them understand healthy eating patterns and ineffectiveness of their habits

-changing maladaptive beliefs about weight

-teaching PSL skills: help cope w/ stress

miss people at risk for developing more serious problems

would not allows for preventative treatments

very high; cumulutive = 46.4%

1 year prevalence = 25%

underestimates

the bigger your army gets, the bigger my army has to be to defend against yourattacks

if you have no army at all, I could invade easily (Vice versa)

truce w/ no armies at all would be ideal, but it is difficult to coordinate and trust the other

When do people make dispositional versus situational attributions about themselves?

exception to the trend?

Self-serving bias: tend to think successes are our own doing (dispositional) and failures can be blamed on external factors (situational)

Exception: sometime people respond to catastrophes (e.g. friend getting hit by a car) by blaming themselves even though they had no control (e.g. if only I had him stay for more coffee)

Dunbar's correlation and Dunbar's number

2 possible causal explanations for Dunbar's correlation

correl: pos. correl. between social group size and % of brain accounted for by neocortex (species w/ larger social groups- more of brain for "higher" thinking"

#: estimate of "natural" size of human social group: 150 

Caus. expl.: greater amount of neocortex causes species to live in larger groups since it enables complex relations; living in larger groups causes species to evolve larger neocortex; they both grow together for 3rd unrelated (i.e. hunting)

Newton&Ross: participants tapped out rhythm of song + expected partners to guess right about 50% of time; actual rate of correct guesses = 2.5%

Gilovich: drank identical glasses of liquid (1 pickle juice); hid reaction but assumed partners would know; false

T-shirt study: participant wears ridiculous T-shirt; not many noticed

Ehrlinger, Gilovich, Ross study of perceptions of bias in the "other side" of arguments

give real-world example

showed that in disagreement, both sides think other is biased and their own is unbiased

politics

Group size: conformity more likely as groups get larger

pressure of dissenters: conformity less likely when at least one other person defies group norm, even if they're wrong

Pluralistic ignorance: ambiguous situation; neighbors unsure whether it was emergency or something benign; looked to each other to understand -> non-intervention signaled that situation was benign

Diffusion of responsibility: assumed other people would help since so many others were around

Are all human behaviors and features shaped by natural selection evolutionarily advantageous?

Give examples of those that provides evolutionary advantage and those that probably have not:

Prob have not: spines

Have: sickle-cell anemia protects against malaria, children's tendency to refuse new foods, pregnant woman's morning sickness may protect fetus from toxins

b/c women had to invest more resources in their offspring, they were choosier in picking maters

b/c men wanted to produce large number of offspring w/out needing to provide resources, they were less choosy

Support: women more jealous of emotional faithfulness; men more jealous of physical

What are causal attributions and what are the broad types they are often divided into?  

What impact do cultural differences have on the way people form attributions?

the inferences we make about what caused someone's behavior; often divided into 2 types:

1) those focusing on dispositional factors

2) those focusing on situational factors

1 --> more in individualistic

2 --> more in collectivist

What are implicit theories of personality and how do they lead to the tendency to stereotype?

Are stereotypes transmitted?

• beliefs that certain behaviors correlate to particular traits and that traits usually go together
• developed through our shcematic knowl; use to make inferences about people; helpful-efficient, but can lead to generalizations
• transmitted both explicitly+implicitly
• Out-group homogeneity effect: more exposure to group = less likely to generalize

2 ways in which persuasion by others can help shape our attitudes (central and peripheral)

central: carefully track incoming info. and consider the content of the arguments

peripheral: devote fewer cognitive resources to processing content of info; influence how and by whom message is presented

How can experience and our own behavior shape our attitudes?

self-perception theory

• when we encounter cognitive dissonance; make actions and beliefs more consistent w/ one another
• Self-perception theory: the idea that we know our own attitudes/feelings only by observing our behaviors and deciding what probably caused them

men feel "parental uncertainty" when mate gives birth

doesn't want to invest resources in a child that doesn't share his genes

kin selection: we help those related to us b/c they share our genes; adaptive since it helps our genes to survive

recipricol altruism: help others w/ expectation that they will help us in future

group selection: groups with common gnes for altruism will out-compete groups in which sush genes are rare; overall survival of these genes

Cheater detection: punish people who "loaf" in situations that require cooperation; makes it "expensive" 

unrelated children reared together in hopes that they would marry and carry on kibbutz; almost none married

evolved system for detecting kin to prevent incest; children had psychological experience of being raised together so they were not attracted to each other as adults

ultimatum game and dictator game

how do they connect to fairness motivations?

ultimatum: 1 player offers $ amount to other player who either accepts/rejects; if accepted, both players take $; if rejected, no one gets $

dictator: 1 play chooses how much to give to other; game ends

ultimatum: 1st player usual. offer half; desire for fairness or to prevent 2nd from rejecting offer (calulated move)?

dictator: determines which of above 2 expl. is correct; dictator gives less but not zero; self-interest +fairness motivation are both at play

If there is 1/201 prevalence of morbus nose syndrome among people like you:

you plan to take diagnostic test with a 20% false positive rate and a 0% false negative rate

test comes out positive; how worried should you be?

mental shortcut that uses the ease with which we recall information to determine how likely or frequent the subject of our search is

• usually good since things that are more available in memory do occur more frequently; HOWEVER, can lead us astray

experts: better problem-solvers in their expertise due to more domain-specific knowledge; not just quantity of knowledge, but different quality of knowledge (higher-order thinking/patterns)

ex: chess masters strategically think in "chunks"

inductive: you make inference about future based on experience in the past; helpful but not logically solid

deductive: derive new assertions based on assertions already in place; no certainty; high guarantee if no logical errors are made

"if it's raining, picnic will be canceled.. it's raining, so picnic is canceled"

dual-process theory

system 1 versus system 2

proposal that judgment involves 2 types of thinking: 

• System 1: automatic thinking; fast efficient but faulty; availability+representative heuristics here
• System 2: effortful, but less risky

anchoring effect

study that demonstrates it?

when people make judgments with uncertainty, they start with anchors and then adjust away from it; since adjusting requires conscious effort, they tend to under-adjust which leads to biases; we even use anchors that we know to be random

Kahneman asked questions like how many African nations are part of UN; participants given 10 or 65 as random #; their estimates were influenced by number even though they knew it was random

bias people have when bargain-hunting

due to framing effect

when a gene produces the product it codes for (usually a protein)

gene is triggered to produce things

can be affected by: temperature, the organism's behavior, its knowledge of its social environment, etc.

monozygotic versus dizygotic twins

what do twins tell us about heritable factors like intelligence?

dizog. "fraternal" twins: share half of gene

monoz "identical" twins: share all of genes

crucial distinction for separating genetic versus environmental influences

100% shared genes leads to more similarity in intelligence, than does sharing 50% and growing up in same environment

What accounts for differences in mating systems (polygamy vs. monogamy)?

What is polygyny and polyandry?

polygyny: when one male mates with many partners

polyandry: when one female mates with many

can be explained partly by needs and mating strategies:

birds: both required to rear chick --> monogamy

mammals: one is often sufficient --> polygamy

3 types of interactions between the two alleles of a gene

(for a heterozygous person)

Dominance: a gene that directs development of certain characteristic, even when corresponding gene on other chromosome if difference (e.g. dimples)

Codominant: both genes in pair affect phenotype (e.g. blood type: AB result of A and B from each)

Incomplete dominance: person w/ 2 diff. alleles will have a phenotype that is intermediate between two favored types (e.g. seratonin transporter gene w/ 2 alleles diff. lengths)

Three principles behind evolution?

1) there must be variation among those within a population

2) some of the variants must survive and reproduce at higher rates

3) traits associated with superior survival and reproduction must be passed onto offspring

• Why are cells so different?
• Genes govern..
• chromosomes are.. and contain..
• DNA is..
• Gene is..

• due to the proteins that each type contains
• production of proteins
• structures in nucleus of each cell; genes
• molecule w.in genes; governs cell structure/processes 
• section of DNA molecule containing instructions for how/when to assemble protein; located on chromosomes

organisms inherit genotype from parents

each egg/sperm receives 1 chromosome from each pair

23 pairs = 46 chromosomes

homo: if paired genes are identical

hetero: if paired genes are different

many genes all influence a single trait

ex: bipolar disorder and schizophrenia

proximate: influences within an organism's lifetime that let to its particular traits/behaviors

ultimate: reasons why, over many years of evolution, a particular trait/behavior helped its population survive

mistaken idea that anything "natural" must be "good"

species do not "improve"

process in which organisms, through their own behaviors, alter the environment and create their own circumstances

niche = all factors in an organism's environment that have potential to affect its life

for a given population in a given environment, it describes what proportion of a trait's variance is due to genetic differences

ratio between 0 and 1

description of a group; tells us what proportion of the total variation within that group can be attributed to genetics diffs. within the members

the environment that was in place when a trait was evolving

natural selection has no way to foresee the future; process depends on organism's ability to survive in current environment

test included diverse range of tasks --> composite score

only for children; ratio between child's "mental age" (level of development) and chronological age

"intelligence quotient" IQ

attempt to understand the nature of intelligence by studying the pattern of results obtained on intelligence tests

·      statistical method for studying the interrelations among various tests

• goal = discover if tests are all influenced by same/distinct factors
• developed by Spearman
• confirms common element shared by all components of IQ test - general intelligence 

Binet said intelligence is a general skill useful for all endeavor

Multiple forms of intelligence, each useful for particular type of task

both correct

Mental Speed

• simple reaction time
• choice reaction time
• inspection time

simple: measures how quickly one responds to stimulus

choice: measures speed of mental processing that takes place when someone must choose between diff. responses depending of stimulus presented

inspection: time someone needs to discriminate between 2 stimuli

keeping one's goal in mind to guide selection of next actions

depend on foremost part of frontal lobe; prefrontal area

damage --> goal neglect (can't keep track of goal) and perseveration (can't make behavior adjustment when goal changes)

Sternberg's two types of intelligence

Analytic: ability tpyically measured by intelligence tests; crucial for academic success

Practical: ability to solve everyday problems through reasoning relying on tacit knnowledge

(tacit knowledge: practical "how-to" knowlege accumulated from everyday experience)

emotional intelligence

theory suggests it has 4 parts:

ability to understand your own and others' emotions and to control yours appropriately

• ability to perceive emotions accurately, use them to facilitate thinking/reasoning, understand them (incl. use of language to describe them), maintain them in oneself and others

Howard Gardney's theory:

Multiple Intelligences

the 6 essential independent mental capacities

(linguistic, logical-math, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, personal intelligence)

based on studies of people w/ brain lesions

worldwide increase in IQ scores over the last several decades, at a rate of about 3 points per decade

stronger in measures of fluid intelligence

All mammals/birds = endotherms: hold temperatures constant (mechanisms such as gaining weight/growing fure for cold months; changes controlled by autonomic nervous system)

Fish/reptiles = ectotherms: more variable internal temps.

after meal, glucose is plentiful; some used right away, some stored; when stored energy is needed, the process is reversed and acids are turned back into usable glucose

this process is managed by the liver

liver sends satiety or hunger signal

receptors in the brain (in the area of the hypothalamus) that detect the amount of glucose in the bloodstream

if they are damaged, result is ravenous eating 

___ = chemical produced by the  ___ cells that seem to signal that plenty of fat is stored and that no more fat is needed -> may diminish eating

works by inhibiting actions of other neurochemicals, such as ___, a chemical that acts as neurotransmitter; potent elicitor of eating

leptin.. adipose

neuropeptide Y (NPY)

the hypothesis that one area in the lateral hypothalamus is the “on” center (the initiator of eating), while another area in the ventromedial hypothalamus is the “off” center (the terminator of eating)

evidence shows other circuits are also involved

damage to lateral region of hyp. disrupts initiation of feeding; damage to ventromedial disrupts ending of feeding

BMI

obesity: weight exceeds average by __

morbid obesity

body mass index = measure of whether someone is at healthy weight

by 20%

level of obesity at which one's health is at risks

(roughly 100 lbs over ideal)

research method in which one makes systematic comparisons among different species in order to gain insights into the function of a particular structure/behavior, or the evolutionary origins of that structure or behavior

predators hunt and kill for food; do so quite dispassionately (not angry; motivated by hunger)

aggressive/self-defensive behaviors controlled by distinct brain areas; triggered by different situations

estrus

three phases

·      in mammals, the period in the cycle when the female is sexually receptive (in heat)

• follicles in ovary mature from pituitary secretions; produce estrogen; hypoth. changes pituitary secretions --> follicle growth incr.; releases mature ovum
• ovum release triggers; animal in estrus; estrogen production peaks to trigger hypothalaus; makes animal sexually receptive
• ruptured follicle secretes progesterone (uterine walls thicken to receive embryo)

human sexual response cycle

4 phases

excitation: heart rate/blood pressure/breathing incr.

plateau: continue to rise, but slower

orgasm

resolution: everything drops and relaxes; refractory period for men (increases with age)

Maslow

tangible support and emotional support

insisted that to understand what is truly human, psychologists must consider all our motives, and he recognized in particular the motive to belong as a powerful force in human behavior

tangible: social support re. practical/material needs

emotions: re. emotional needs

mastery orientation

performance orientation

learning orientation characterized by a focus on gaining new knowledge/abilities/improving

(more likely to incr. effort after adversity)

learning orientation characterized by a focus onpresenting oneself well and appearing intelligent to others

(more likely to withdraw after criticism)

pain matrix

"common currency"

a distributed network of brain regions, including the thalamus and anterior cingulate cortex, thought to respond to many types of pain

overlap in types of pain; expres a wide range of undesirable states

intrinsically rewarding

extrinsically rewarding

wanting vs. liking (nucleus accumbens)

•   an activity or object that is pursued for its own sake
• activity/object pursued due to rewards (not inherent part of activity)

brain regions:

fear is associated with ___

sadness associated with ___

amygdala

cingulate cortex just below corpus callosum

·      a form of emotion regulation in which an individual changes her emotional response to a situation by altering her interpretation of that situation

tries to change emotional response by reevaluating the meaning a situation has

informational versus normative influence

minority influence

informational: people conform out of desire to be correct

(often leads to social referencing)

normative: desire to be liked/not appear foolish

minority influence (confederate ally)

thinking about social world in ways that serve an emotional need

ex: when people hold beliefs that help them feel less anxious

social facilitation

social inhibition

social loafing

deindividuation

• perform simple tasks better in front of others

• perform complex tasks worse in front of others

• people put in less effort when working with others

• individual in group has weakened sense of identity/self-awareness

·      Zimbardo’s study: effect of roles on behavior; participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison; study ended early due to “guards’” role-induced cruelty

group polarization

risky shift

groupthink

• group discussions --> attitudes get more extreme

• group more willing to take chances

• pattern of thinking when a cohesive group neglects members' differences of opinion

personality paradox

study of children?

the idea that people seem to behave much less consistently than a trait conception would predict

study: children inclined to cheat on test were often quite honest in other settings and vice versa

·      a personality measure that seeks to determine the degree to which a person alters or adjusts their behavior in order to act appropriately in new circumstances

high self-monitors care more about how they appear to others; adapt more to diff. situations

Eysenck’s theory of extraversion/introversion

 study?

relation to sensation seeking?

differences derives from fact that introverts react more strongly than extraverts to external stimuli; introverts guard against stimuli since it feels like overstimulation to them

study: introverts' brains reacted more quickly to clicking noises

sensation seeks have underreactive neurotransmitter systems

inhibited temperament

how do these infants act?

explanation and study?

• personality style ass. w/ introversion+neuroticism; characterized by fear of novelty evident in early life
• As infants: react strongly when distressed; cry vigorously and show high levels of motor activity
• overreactive brain: study that children have low threshold for activity in amygdala (used fMRI to show inhibited ppl. showed more activation when shown unfamiliar faces)

• key lies in how a group of people sustains itself (i.e. hunting/farming/trade)
• More recent model: arise due to combination of forces (i.e. historical migration patterns, environmental factors, etc.)

·      an older term for a group of presumably psychogenic disorders that included a wide variety of physical and mental symptoms

now called conversion disorder

Freud's hypothesis derived from Charcot's realization that:

what phenomenon showed this?

...that many of the bodily symptoms of hysteria made no anatomical sense

glove anesthesia: lack of feeling in hand but still had feeling above wrist

·      kept certain emotionally charged memories buried; memory expressed in a veiled form through the physical symptoms

method used in psychoanalytic therapy in which the patient is to say anything that comes to her mind, no matter how apparently trivial, unrelated, or embarrassing

: theory of human personality development formulated by Freud; based on assertions about unconscious conflict and early psychosexual development; also the method of therapy that draws heavily on this theory

ID: most primitive reactions of human personality; blind striving for immediate biological satisfaction regardless of cost; based on pleasure principle

·      Ego: set of reactions trying to reconcile the id’s blind pleasure strivings w/ demands of reality; based on reality principle

·      Superego: reaction patterns emerged from w/in ego; rep. internalized societal rules; come to control ego by punishment w/ guilt/shame

·      collective term for a number of reactions that try to ward off or lessen anxiety by various unconscious means

·      process in which an impulse (i.e. repressed urge) is redirected from a channel that is blocked into another, more available outlet

a mechanism of defense in which a forbidden impulse is turned into its opposite

·      a mechanism of defense in which unacceptable thoughts/impulses are reinterpreted in more acceptable, and thus less anxiety-arousing terms

·      a mechanism of defense in which various forbidden thoughts/impulses are attributed to another person rather than the self

1. oral stage
2. anal stage
3. phallic stage (gential stimulation)
4. genital stage (both personal gratification and satisfaction brought to another person)

according to Freud, pivotal point in the child’s psychosexual development; boy resents father / girl resents mother

penis envy: wish for a penis; normally in females as part of Electra complex

"psychopathology of everyday life"

dreams (different contents)

Freud drew attention to them as clues to the person's hidden thoughts

dreams; attempts at wish fulfillment

Latent: actual wishes/concerns symbolized by dream

Manifest: laundered version that emerges as the dream

collective unconscious

archetypes

a set of primordial stories and images, hypothesized by Carl Jung to be shared by all of humanity, and which he proposed underlie and shape our perceptions and desires

·      the stories and images that constitute our collective unconscious

a school of psychodynamic thought that emphasizes the skills and adaptive capacities of the ego

All agree with Freud’s contention that unconscious conflict is found in all people, but also stress that those conflicts can be resolved in a way that is appropriate, pragmatic, and healthy

data about a person concerning concrete, real-world outcomes

(i.e. satisfaction in marriage, rewarding friendships, gratifying jobs)

correlation between mature coping defenses and life data

object relations

Bowlby

 a school of psychodynamic thought that emphasizes the real (as opposed to fantasized) relations an individual has with others

• Bowlby: people were motivated by desire for connection with others; child shaped by relationship w/ primary attachment figure (lovable or not)

·      argues that healthy individuals want to feel free to choose and determine their own lives, rather than to exist as pawns pushed around by stimuli; humans want to grow and develop their potential

·      the study of individuals’ own unique, first-person conscious experience

the way an individual makes sense of the world around him; interpretation

I = self that thinks/acts/feels/believes

Me = set of physical and psycholotgical attributes that define who you are as a person

(i.e. kind of music you like, appearance, activities that give your life meaning)

·      emphasizes the individual’s active attempts to satisfy his needs in a manner that is consistent with his self-concept

self-schema

actual selves

possible selves

an organized body of knowledge about the self; actively shapes one’s behaviors, perceptions, and emotions

actual: self-schema for who one is at the moment

possible: self-schema for who one may be in the future 

(includes the idea self or ought self)

the personal narratives/stories that provide a person with a sense of direction and meaning

promotion focus: orientation to actively pursue valued goals that to arise when we compare our actual and ideal self

prevention focus: orientation to avoid doing harm thought to arise when we compare our actual self to our ought self

positive psychology

research movement  that emphasizes factors that make people psychologically healthy, happy, or able to cope well with their life circumstances

happiness set point

key to stability?

study?

•       level that appears to be heavily influenced by genetics and is remarkably stable across the lifetime
• key = adaptation
• study compared two groups (won lottery/lost limb); very diff. happiness right after event, but similar content level after a few months

social-cognitive approach

derives from 2 traditions:

·      Endorses all claims, but primary focus = power of people’s beliefs in shaping their responses to others and to the world around them

behavioral tradition (rewards/instrumental/observational learning)

cognitive tradition: emphasizes individual as thinking being

outcome expectations

self-efficacy

beliefs, drawn from experience, about what consequences of certain actions are likely to be

sense a person has about what things he can plausibly accomplish

George Kelly

Role Construct Repertory Test

emphasized people's interpretations of the situation

asks people to list three key individuals in their life and then say how two of these three were different from the third --> could decipher the dimension each person used (i.e. intelligence, strength, or goodness) to make sense of the world

·      personality must consider neither fixed traits nor static situation; should instead focus on how people dynamically process various aspects of their ever-changing world

-->contends that qualities that form personality are essentially cognitive

cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)

5 key qualities on which people can differ:

•  Encodings: construals used to interpret experiences
• Expectancies/beliefs about world: include outcome expectations / self-efficacy
• Affects: emotions responses to situations
• Goals/values: outcomes considered desirable
• Competencies/self-regulatory plans: how one regulates his behavior

entity: people’s assumption that their abilities are relatively fixed

incremental: their abilities can change and grow in response to new experience and learning

control: people want/benefit from control over their life (being able to make choices)

Attributional style: how we explain things (i.e. self-handicapping: intentional obstacle to performance)

self-control: able to pursue goal while managing internal conflicts about it / delay pursuit due to constraints

Mischel study of willpower in children

what did it depend on?

wait for better snack (marshmellow)

depended on what children did and thought about while they waited; distracting thoughts helped them wait

 social-cognitive theorists are more likely to stress ___ factors and how the individual understands and deals with it

trait theorists tend to emphasize __ bases of personality, while social-cognitive theorists typically place greater emphasis on the role played by___ in shaping personality

situational

genetics... learning

·      Social-cognitive theorists and psychodynamic theorists both try to dig deeper than the surface of personality, but their approaches differ:

•  Social-cognitive: emphasize cognitive processes (i.e. construal and beliefs) and prioritize strictly controlled experiments

•  Psychodynamic: emphasize unconscious impulses and defenses; rely on insights drawn from clinical work with patients

Social cognitive approach versus humanistic approach

positive outlook (Rogers) resonates w/ ___

traditions differ: 

resonates w/ social cognitive theorists like Bandura (optimistic about capacity to overcome/show resilience)

• Humanistic theorist: growth in terms of a self that is actualized to varying degrees
• Social-cognitive: malleable set of processes that guide how one acts, and ultimately who he is

somatogenic hypothesis

gained credibility due to..

mental disorders caused by bodily factors

19th c. general paresis: broad decline in physical/psychological function; led to delusions; progresses to paralysis and death

psychogenic hypothesis

Freud's take?

mental disorders result from psychological causes

Freud: mental illness derives from inner conflicts and defensive maneuvers aimed at dealing with those conflicts

·      conception of psychopathology; distinguishes factors that create a risk of illness (the diathesis) from the factors that turn the risk into a problem (the stress)

diff. between predisposition for disorders and factors that trigger the realization of disorder

conception of how mental disorders arise; emphasizes that multiple factors play a role

(genetics, styles of thinking, etc.)

emphasizes the biological, psychological, and social factors that contribute to mental illness

more comprehensive; supported by many

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) 

specific guidance on how to diagnose each of the nearly 200 psychological disorders; currently in its 4^th edition

function definition focuses on distress + disability, rather than specifying causes of problem

point prevalence

lifetime prevalence

% of people in given population who have a given disorder at any particular point in time

% who will have disorder at any point in their lives

symptoms versus signs

(in psychopathology)

symptoms - what patient reports about his condition

signs: what clinician observes about patient's condition

patient asked to respond to stimuli that are unstructured/ambiguous; cannot help but impose a structure of his own; leads to valuable info re. unconscious wishes/conflicts

ex: make up a story to describe picture / InkBlot test

1. clinical syndromes (depression/eating disorder/etc)
2. 2 broad sets of difficulties: mental retardation and personality disorders 
3. general medical conditions contributing to psychological functioning
4. social/environmental problems
5. global assessment of functioning: how they cope

sympathetic

autonomic

a fear of being in situations in which help might not be available or escape might be difficult or embarrassing

period immediately after a trauma; generally a period of numbness, feeling of estrangement, socially unresponsively, feels oddly unaffected

acute stress disorder

PTSD (symptoms)

• reaction sometimes observed in individuals who have experienced a trauma; characterized by flashbacks and recurrent nightmares

PTSD symptoms:

• re-experiencing (nightmares/flashbacks); arousal (hard to concentrate/sleep/extreme reaction when startled); avoidance (anything linked to trauma);  "survival guilt"

·      tendency for different mental disorders to occur together in the same person

·      probability that a person with a particular familial relationship to a patient has the same disorder as the patient

person can acquire a conditioned response merely by observing someone else’s fear

Risk of suicide  greater among those with ___ than among those with any other psychiatric disorder, including depression

mixed states

hypomania

mania

pattern often w/ bipolar disorder; displays combo. of manic and depressive symptoms

mild manic state; feels infectiously merry, talkative, charming, tireless

characterized by racing thoughts/speech/irrability/eurphora/impaired judgment

3 neurotransmitters critical for mood disorders:

antidepressant drugs work by...?

norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin

by increasing availability of neurotransmitters

negative cognitive scheme

(according to Aaron Beck)

·      core cognitive component of depression, consisting of one’s automatic negative interpretations concerning himself, his future, and the world

a person’s characteristic way of explaining his experiences; consistently attributing bad experiences to internal, global, and stable causes may increase vulnerability to depression

depression more commong among __ socioeconomic groups

bipolar disorder more common among ___ socioeconomic groups

lower

higher

schizophrenia

typically diagnosed when?

diff. between men and women?

a group of severe mental disorders characterized by at least some of the following: marked disturbance of thought, withdrawal, inappropriate or flat emotions, delusions, hallucinations

late adolescence / early adulthood

often earlier and more severe for men

forecast of how a situation/illness will improve or fail to improve in the future

prospect of recovery

negative symptom of schizo.

loss of interest in activities that we would ordinarily expect to be pleasurable; lower goal-oriented behavior

asserts that the brains of people with schizophrenia are oversensitive to the neurotransmitter dopamine

predicts that medications that block dopamine activity at the synapse also reduce the psychotic symptoms that follow amphetamine abuse

·      drugs that block dopamine receptors; seem to treat many positive symptoms of schizophrenia

stimulants that enhance dopamine activity à when taken in large enough doses, they produce a temporary psychosis similar to schizophrenia 

autism

hypotheses for causes

more frequent in boys, diagnosed very young

• problem in functioning in amygdala (essentail for emotion/motivation)
• abnormalities incerebellum
• Problem in brain structure that helps learn and understand others' intentions

Attention-deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): 

·      usually diagnosed in young children; characterized by impulsivity, difficulty staying focused on a tasks, and a range of behavioral problems

Medications use stimulant methylphenidate

inability of an individual to remember some period of her life, or even her entire past, including her identity, often understood as a way of coping with extremely painful events

·      someone leaves home, then days/months later, suddenly realizes he is in a strange place and doesn’t know how he got there; often understood as a means of coping with (escaping from) extremely painful events

·      results in a person developing two or more distinct personalities

peronality disorders

which axis of DSM?

How many does DSM recognize?

relatively stable, pervasive patterns of behavior and inner experiences that are culturally discrepant and lead to distress or impairment

noted on Axis 2 of the DSM

10 recognized

Pinel: had shackles and chains removed from Parisian mental hospitals; patients given exercise and fresh air

Dorothea dix

·      an instance of a mental disorder in which someone does show symptoms, but not at a level of intensity, frequency, or duration that would justify a formal diagnosis

Only about __% of U.S. people with clinically significant disorders 

__% of people in world have no access to treatment

40

90

an understanding of how a patient’s cultural background shapes his beliefs, values, and expectations for therapy

long-term prognosis for schizophrenia is ___ in developing countries than it is in the U.S.

over 500 forms of psychological treatments

different bases:

• psychoanalysis: emphasizes unconscious conflicts; encourages introspection/insight
• Humanistic: focus on growth/realizing potential
• Behavioral: identify+replace maladaptive responses
• cognitive: focus on disabling role of faulty thinking; teach more rational thought

·      derived from psychoanalytic theory (developed by Freud), which asserts that clinical symptoms arise from unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood

·      patient’s tendency to respond to the analyst or therapist in ways that re-create her responses to major figures in her life; feelings transferred onto the analyst

analyst "holds up mirror" to patient; important to "Work through" a conflict

brief therapy treatment focused on helping the patient understand how she interacts w/ others and learn better ways 

often used for depression

form of humanistic therapy associated with Carl Rogers; the therapist’s genuineness, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding are crucial to therapeutic success

helps them accept themselves with no limits

·      brief, nonconfrontational, client-centered therapy designed to change specific problematic behaviors such as alcohol or drug use

Gestalt therapy

technique often used?

form of humanistic therapy associated with Fritz Perls; aims to help the patient integrate inconsistent aspects of herself into a coherent whole by increasing self-awareness and self-acceptance

empty chair technique – patient imagines he is seated across from another person (i.e. parent, partner) and tells him honestly what he feels

see it as too loose and unscientific

focus on overt behavior, rather than unconscious thoughts

view maladaptive behaviors as the problem to be solves

new learning to replace old habits

exposure therapy

in vivo desensitization

both part of ___ techniques

exposure therapy: behavior therapy trying to remove anxiety connected to a feared stimulus

in vivo: key step in behavioral steatment of a phobia

classical conditioning

token economy

contingency management

both examples of ___ techniques to change behavior

token: based on operant conditioning; parents reinforce positive behaviors with token that can be exchanged for desirable items

contingency: certain behaviors are reliably followed by well-defined consequences

operant conditioning 

modeling technique

can be supported by..?

someone learns new skills or changes behavior by imitating another

supported by vicarious reinforcement: sees model experience some good outcome after doing desired behavior

rational emotive behavioral therapy

·      form of cognitive therapy associated with Albert Ellis; therapist actively challenges the patient’s irrational beliefs

cognitive therapy

·      approach to therapy (developed by Aaron Beck); tries to change patient’s habitual modes of thinking about herself, her situation, and her future

set of cognitive therapy techniques for changing a person’s maladaptive beliefs or interpretations through persuasion and confrontation

·      hybrid form of psychotherapy focused on changing the patient’s habitual interpretations of the world and ways of behaving

·      an approach to treatment that deliberately weaves together multiple types and forms of therapy

Most US psychologists idenitify with this approach

prehistoric surgical procedure that removed pieces of skills as an escape path for the supposed demons

medications that control, or at least moderate, the manifestations of some mental disorders

address negative symptoms by blocking the neurotransmission of dopamine, but their enhanced benefits, especially with negative symptoms, are probably caused by other mechanisms

antidepressants: 2 classes

work by?

the monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, and the tricyclic antidepressants (became more popular)

by increasing amount of norepinephrine and seratonin available for synaptic transmission

Prozac

first ___ that started new class of antidepressants called __

"designer drug"

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

lithium

limitations?

mood stabilizer to treat bipolar disorder

only works in 60-70% of bipolar patients and comes with side effects; many bipolar patients choose not to take it because they do not want to sacrifice the pleasures/productivity often associated with the manic state

anxiolytics

common self-prescribed example

known as tranquilizers; drugs that alleviate the symptoms of anxiety

increase neurotransmission at synapses containing GABA

alcohol

benzodiazepines

example

limitation

·      performed to alleviate manifestations of mental disorders that cannot be alleviated using psychotherapy, medication, or other standard treatments

severs neurological connections between thalamus and frontal lobe; originally meant to liberate a patient’s thoughts from a pathological influence of her emotions

side effects discovered: disrupted higher cognitive functions

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) 

·      somatic treatment, mostly used for cases of severe depression, in which a brief electric current is passed through the brain to produce a convulsive seizure

acts more quickly than medication

·      emerging biomedical treatment for depression that involves electrically stimulating the vagus nerve with a small battery-powered implant

·      an emerging biomedical treatment for depression and OCD that involves stimulating specific parts of the brain with implanted electrodes

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) 

·      emerging biomedical treatment for depression that involves applying rapid pulses of magnetic stimulation to the brain from a coil held near the scalp

does not appear to have side effects

Some researchers believe it to be the most important ingredient in effective psychotherapy: 

·      Therapeutic alliance: the relationship between therapist and patient that helps many patients feel hopeful and supported

Empirically supported treatments (EST) 

movement toward EST caused by:

clinical methods; research proven them effective for treating given disorder

Eysenck attack on efficacy of psychoanalysis / "insight" therapies

development of pharmocological treatments: crucial, but side effects --> use only for patients that will clearly benefit from them

"before-and-after" assessments of drug's efficacy

how to control factors? 

helpful but ignores the possibility of spontaneous improvement; many patients get better on their own; most disorders fluctuate in severity

two comparison groups; one with no drug taken

·      procedure for evaluating the outcome of therapy, usually involving random assignment of participants to one or more treatment groups or a no-treatment control group

in randomized clinical trials, a control condition in which patients receive delayed treatment rather than no treatment; before being treated, they are compared to patients treated earlier

a form of therapy, often used in research, in which a manual describes a set course of therapy, indicating what steps the therapist should take, what instructions to offer, and so on

·      whether a therapeutic intervention works under real-world conditions

“dodo bird verdict”

Some believe that all interventions are equally effective

Many take issue with this verdict, but it is somewhat valid in that a disorder can often be treated effectively by various methods