1) Extraversion: A tendency to draw energy from external world

2) Neuroticism (emotional stability): A tendency to experience a wide range of negative emotional states

3) Agreeableness: Tendency to be good-natured, easy-going, and cooperative

4) Conscientiousness: Tendency to be disciplined, goal-oriented, organized, and persistent

5) Openness to Experience: Tendency to enjoy novelty and change, willingness to try new things

Branch of genetics that studies the relative contributions of heredity and environment to personality

Personality = phenotypes

Phenotypes = genotype + environment

1856-1939

Importance of early childhood experiences

Benefits of talking about a problem

Interpretations of dreams

"Freudian slip"

Defense mechanisms

Sexuality and human nature

1837-1901

Very smug about human rationality

Very purtanical with a strong sexual double standard

"Proper women didn't have sexual feelings"

1) Structure of the mind/brain

2) Personality

3) Personality development

4) Psychodynamics

5) Psychopathology

6) Methods of analysis

7) Psychotherapy

People have basic (animal) needs that are present from birth and continue throughout life --> "Id"

2 Forces prevent us from fulfilling these needs:

Reality--danger ("Ego")

Morality--wrong ("Superego")

Each person's mode of satisfying basic animal needs in a world that discourages their direct gratification

Comprised of early-life experiences and remain inaccessible to consciousness

1) Conscious -- " tip of iceberg"

-Thoughts/images are currently in awareness

2) Preconscious

-Thoughts/images that can easily be brought into consciousness

3) Unconscious -- "bottom of iceberg"

-Thoughts/feelings/desires that are actively kept out of awareness

-Source of all human motivation

The source of all motives, needs, wishes, and desires

-Present and fully functioning at birth

-Entirely unconscious

-Primary process thinking (doesn't distinguish between fantasy/reality)

-Seeks immediate gratification (pleasure principles)

-Associated with limbic system

Seat of reason, rationality, and logic (aka: executive control)

-Not present at birth, but emerges early in life

-Almost entirely conscious or preconscious

-Takes reality into account using secondary process thinking (can distinguish between reality/fantasy)

-Associated with prefrontal cortex

Source of morality, conscience, and ideal behavior

-Begins to develop around 4 years old

-Unconscious, preconscious, & conscious

-Unconscious: Classically conditioned -- anxiety -- limbic system

-Conscious: Deliberate moral judgement (VMPFC, DLPFC)

0-18 months

Sensory pleasure spot: Mouth (sucking, chewing, biting)

Action: weaning

Optimal Resolution: Trust and independence

Fixation: Overindulgence -- spoiled, demanding

Underindulgence -- cynical, biting

18-36 months

Sesnory pleasures spot: Bladder and bowels -- self control of bodily processes

Action: Toilet training

Optimal Resolution: Self-control

Fixation: Overcontrolled -- Anal retentive, rigid, controlling, stingy

Undercontrolled -- Anal expulsive, messy, unreliable, irresponsible

3-6 years

Sensory pleasure spot: Genitals

Critical task: Resolution of the Oedipus complex

Optimal Resolution: Identify with the same-sex parent & development of the superego

Unsuccessful resolution: Sexual confusion and immoral behavior

7yrs-puberty

Sexual feelings are submerged, beginning to learn how you can contribute to society

Fixation: Excessive self-concern of yourself if you fail to redirect your sexual feelings into your contribution to society

Puberty-Life

Optimal outcome: Mature, adult sexual heterosexual, contributes to society, responsible

Oedipus Complex

Hostility toward father, romantic feelings for mother

Freud believes we all want this, yet repress it

Boys & girls both have incestous feelings for mothers --> creates anxiety because they think Dad will be mad

Male wants to kill father and replace him as mother's sexual partner

Fears Dad will castrate them

To alleviate anxiety, boy represses feelings and identifies with Dad

Develops sugerego

Female wants to kill father and have incestous romantics with Mother

Fears dad already figured it out and has already castrated her --> Wants her penis back

Identifies with Mom

Develops superego

1) Homophobic -- successful resolution of Oedipus complex creates heterosexualitty and morality (according to Freud)

2) Sexist -- Boys will have more anxiety than girls --> anxiety causes/creates superego

Girls will not be as firmly heterosexual and less moral than men

Everyone wants to kill their father and sleep with their mother, according to Freud

We repress these feelings

Anxiety signifies failure to satisfy Id impulses in safe, socially appropriate ways

Quell anxiety

-Requires psychological energy

-Repression/denial of unconscious

-Most are conscious/preconscious

Distress over contact with unfamiliar people

Happens around 7 months to 18 months

Distress over being seperated from primary caregiver (usually mother)

Happens around 14 months to 16-18 months

1905-1981

Hull's drive reduction model

Explanation for why we form attachments

Raise infant monkey with 2 fake moms (one nourishes, one is warm & fuzzy)

Infant monkey clings to warm/fuzzy monkey (Reduces psychological needs, not the monkey that reduced biological needs -- hunger)

More to human motivation that just biological needs

1907-1990

Freudan psychologists

In charge of London's orphanages during WW2

Even though they were well-fed, safe, and cared for, they didn't thrive like other non-orphan kids

Attachment bonds: If you feel securely attached, then you feel confident enough to leave/explore

14 month old baby goes into fun, stimulus-rich environment (lab)

1) Will infant separate from Mom to play?

2) Will infant share toys with Mom?

Stranger enters, Mother leaves

1) How distressed will infant be?

Mom comes back

1) Is infant crying/resentful/easily consolled?

Infant Attachment Styles

(Securely Attached)

Separated easily

Distressed when Mom leaves but not inconsollable when she returns

Comforted when Mom returns, can separate again

Infant Attachment Style

(Insecure Anxious/Ambivalent)

Trouble separating

Very upset when Mom leaves, not consolled when she returns

Punitive/clingy

Inconsistently available (baby can't predict)

Infant Attachment Style

(Insecure Avoidant)

Separates/doesn't share with Mom

Unaffected when Mom leaves the room

Unconcerned/mean when Mom returns

Child has learned that parents aren't always there for you

1) Secure: Capable of forming close love relationships, don't worry about being abandoned

2) Insecure Anxious/Ambivalent: Forms insecure relationships, excessive dependence, fear of abandonment

3) Insecure Avoidant: Fears getting close to people, think you're better off alone and independent

1902-1994

"Love child" of Jewish mom and Scandanavian Dad

Believes there are 8 psychosocial stages of development

Each stage involves a crisis/conflict

Resolved = personal strength

Not resolved = weakness acquired

Epigenetic Principle: Stages are revisited throughout life, not sentenced to one portion of your life

Age -- Stage -- Psychological Conflict -- Strength

1) Birth-18mo -- infancy -- Trust/Mistrust -- Hope

2) 18mo-3yr -- Toddler -- Autonomy/Shame&Doubt -- Will determination

3) 3yr-6yr -- Preschool -- Initiative/Guilt -- Purpose

4) 6yr-puberty -- Middle Childhood -- Industry/Inferiority -- Competance

5) Puberty-20yr -- Adolescence -- Indentiy/Role confusion -- Fidelity (sense of community)

6) 20s, 30s -- Early childhood -- Intimacy/Isolation -- Love

7) 40s, 50s -- Middle Adulthood -- Generativity/Stagnation -- Care

8) 60s-on -- Adulthoood -- Integrity/Despair -- Wisdom

1) Occupation

2) Ideology

3) Sexual Orientation

No identity commitment & no identity crisis:

Diffused - "get off my case"

No identity commitment & identity crisis:

Moratorium - "actively working on it"

Identity commitment & no identity crisis:

Foreclosed - "never confused, known identity all life"

**Identity commitment & identity crisis:**

Identity achieved - "struggled but came through it"

Contributions:

Personality developed throughout lifetime

Identity crisis in adolescence

Impact of social, cultural, personal, and situational forces in forming personality

Criticisms:

Ambiguous

Cross-cultural validity

Only applies to those affluent enough to explore identities

1973

Seminary students were suppose to give a lecture across campus

Some were told they were running late, others on time, other ahead of schedule

They left and encountered a homeless man in distress, and their timing had a large effect on whether or not they stopped to help

"Seemingly small situational factors can have powerful consequences"

We form impressions of people extremely quickly

Consensus: People agree on first impressions

Accuracy: High for some traits, but not all

Shared learned stereotypes, innate, unlearned tendencies

People have innate preference for attractive faces

Begins early in life

Cross-culture agreement on what's considered a "pretty face"

"What is beautiful is good" stereotype

Symmetry is more attractive than asymmmetry

People like people with average features

Explanations we give for why things happen

Always an inference

Guide our psychological lives

Causal Attributions -- Emotional Reaction

1) Unavoidable accident -- Little emotional reaction

2) Carelessness -- Irritation

3) Deliberate aggression -- Anger or fear

4) Disability -- Sympathy, compassion, pity

5) Your responsibility -- Apologetic, guilty

Attributions Theory

Perceived behavior is an additive function of dispositional cause (D) and situational cause (S)

PB = f(D+S)

Dispositional causes: Attributions to a person's enduring character, nature, and ability

Cognitive: Beliefs a person has about an attitude object

Affective: Person's emotional reaction to an attitude object

Behavioral: Person's behavioral response to an attitude object

A negative attitude toward a group and its members

3 Components: Stereotypes, prejudiced feelings, discrimination

Must relate to a person's group membership

Ingroup favoritism: People favor their own groups over other groups (outgroups)

Beliefs are easier to change than feelings

Prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination have declined

People's attitudes toward prejudice itself has changed (no longer okay or "cool" to be hateful)

Implicit Measure of prejudice: Designed to measure attitudes people conceal from themselves and others

Snyder, Kieck, Strenta, Mentzer

1979

Aesthetic preferencess

Experiment: Option to watch movie in one of two rooms -- already person sitting in each theatre (one "normal" and one disabled)

Conclusion: Same movie - 60% sit with disabled person

Different movie -- 20% sit with disabled person

Source of prejudice

Prejudice arises when groups realistically compete for scarce, tangible resources (land, water, food)

Hopeful theory: Prejudice would disappear if we had plenty of resources

EX: Middle East

People are prejudice because it makes them feel good about themselves

No conflict necessary

Arbitrarily division into groups

No interaction between your group or others

No chance for self-benefit

Prejudice, negative stereotypes, and discrimination occur with minmal group membership

Contact hypothesis: Bringing people together reduces prejudice ONLY if

1) Equal status

2) Pleasant interactions

3) Supporting social norms (Ex: buses, elevators)

4) Cooperative interdependence

Voluntary behavior intended to harm another person

Must involve an action (rumor, violence, etc)

Must be voluntary and intentional

Intended behavior must be directed toward another person

Innate: Babies are "burning cauldrons of murderous intent"

Human nature

Learned: Nothing about human nature leads to aggression

Product of our environment

Aggression is instinctive, present at birth, exerts an influence throughout life

Hydraulic Model: Aggression must be periodically released

Redirecting acts of aggression

1) Displacement: Diverting unacceptable impulses toward a more acceptable object

2) Sublimation: Releasing unacceptable impulses in socially valued ways

3) Dramatic catharsis: Viewing aggressive acts decreased aggressive drive

Civilizations that don't allow people to release aggression will end up exploding later

"Serenity now, insanity later"

1903-1989

Aggression is innate, and a permanent part of human nature

Intraspecies aggression disperses the population, but rarely ends in violence -- Ex: Not sharing the same waterhole

"Guns don't kill people, people kill people"

High media violence --> children behave more violently/aggression (coorelation)

Violent media does not cause aggression

Tendency to emphasize dispositional causes rather than situational ones

We tend to be personality psychologists, not social psychologist

Actor-Observor Effect: People are more likely to commit the FAE when explaining others people's behavior than when explaining their own behavior

Self-Serving Attribution Bias: People make dispositional attributions for their successes (I got an A b/c I'm smart) and situational attributions for their failures (I got a D b/c the professor is arrogant)

*Individualist cultures are especially prone to commit the FAE

Attitude: Evaluative reactions to people, issues, or objects

Beliefs: Matters of opinion/faith

Values: Broad, guiding principles that represent what people care deeply about

Values-Expressive function of attitudes

Emotional theories of attitude formation argue that attitudes are formed independent belief

Learning theory: Classical conditioning, instrumental learning (remembrant), social learning

Classical Conditioning of Attitudes

Mechanisms of Learning

Instrumental Learning: people hold attitudes that have met with prior reinforcement

Social Learning: people model other people's attitudes (parents)

The more times we're exposed to a stimulus, the more we like it

Exposure can be subliminal

Must begin with neutral stimulus

After 14 exposures, no more liking occurs

With 25+ exposures, temporary disliking but then a rebound effect

People don't act in accordance with their attitudes

Sometimes hypocritical

Concerned with how people cope with attitude-behavior discrepencies

Discrepancies between beliefs and behaviors create an aversive state of arousal that people are driven to reduce

Arousal can be reeduced by...

1) Change behavior

2) Change attitude

3) Add a cogntions (rationalize, justify)

People who act hypocriticallly will change their attitutudes if they cannot justify their behavior

Experiment: Subjects have hypocrtical manners

Some give sufficient justification, others do not

Prediction: People with insufficient justification will change their attitude to match behavior

1959

Subjects work on boring tasks, then asked to lie to others and say it's really interesting

They're given certain amount of money if they lie ($1-$20)

Large rewards produce more liking

Dissonance theory says small reward produces better liking because people justify their behavior

Positive: Bizarre behaviors, such as delusions, hallucinations, disordered speecch & thinking, represent pathological extremes of normal processes

Negative: Absence of normal reactions, lack of emotional expressions, loss of motivation, lack of speech

Delusions: False beliefs that are sustained in the face of clear contradictory evidence

Hallucinations: False preceptions that have a compelling sense of reality; auditory, visual, tactile

Disorganized thoughts/language: Nonsensical rhyming patterns

Delusions and some auditory hallucinations

Little to no disorganized speech

Confusion and incoherence

Deterioration of adaptive behavior (personal hygiene, self-care, social skills)

Highly inappropriate emotional responses

Silly and child-like

A change in behavior in response to real or imagined social pressures

Can be implicit, assumed

To be right -- informational influence

To be liked -- Normative influence

To be like -- identity influence

Public behavior same as private behavior

Must smoke the same amount alone as while observed

Influenced by: Expertise

Personal Variables: Ignorance or uncertainty

Public behaviors does not equate to private behavior

Wear certain shoes in public but not at home

Influenced by: Status prestige

Personal variables: Loneliness, needs for approval

Public behaviors equal private behaviors

The stronger our need (to be right, to be liked, to be like) then the easier we're influenced by people -- especially the more powerful the person

Influenced by: Attractive identity

Personal Variables: Identity confusion

Gestalt psychologist

Length of lines/comparisons

Subject seated in 5th chair

Not intended to measure conformity, but for Gestalt theory

Conformity drops to 0% when the subject gets to write down their answer instead of saying verbally

The Role of unanimty: Conformity drops to 0% if a person before you gives a different answer than the group

6 degrees of separation

Subject is teacher --> punishes learned when they make a mistake by shocking them exponentially

All faked/staged

Learned complains of pains, teacher is told to continue shocking harder

68% continue shocking nonresponsive learner; 20% stop after learner's first compaint

Subject were being "obedient"

Breach of ethics

Application to Holocaust (Nuremberg defense)

View of human nature as sheep-like

Forcing people to do something they don't want to do

"Not in our nature to do"

Subjects weren't forced to aggress, they were allowed to aggress -- not obedience

Symptoms: Any action, though, feeling, or behavior that signifies psychological distress

Intense sadness, hallucinations, etc

Physical Ex: runny nose, itchy eyes

Syndromes: A collection of interrelated symptoms

1) Behavior is maladpative, dysfunctional, or problematic

2) Deviates from cultural norms

3) The behavior causes the individual personal distress

Biological: Disruptions in neurotransmitters or biological structures

Can be inherited or result of experience

Psychological: Early childhood experiences (traumatic)

Sociocultural: Current life circumstance

Psychological disorders are often triggered by a blend of internal and external factors

Internal factors: Biological/psychological factors that make some people more inclined to react to environmental stress

Cultural forces:

1) Hysteria: In Freud's era, many patients experienced hysteria -- now called conversion disorder

"I can't feel my hand" -- very rare

2) ADHD: Many young boys are diagnosed with ADHD

Expressions of mental distress that are limited to a specific cultural group

Anorexia -- White, female, European

Anxiety/Depression -- Western

Physical Manifestation -- China

Axis -- Description -- Example

1 -- Primary clinical symptoms -- Depression, anxiety, hallucinations

2 -- Longstanding personality or development disorders -- Antisocial personality disorder, retardation

3 -- Relevant Medical Condition -- Brain injuries, senous physical disability

4 -- Intensity of psychosoical environmental stressors -- Unemployment, grieving, poverty

5 -- Global Assessment of Functioning (0-100) -- To what extent is primary symptom interfering with life

1) Anxiety (50%): Intense, frequent, or inappopriate tension -- Deviates from norm

2) Personality: Extreme, inflexible personality trait that causes subjective distress or impaired social functioning

3) Mood (20%): Marked disturbances of mood (Ex: Depression, mania)

4) Schizophrenia: Severe thinking, perception, and emotion that involves loss of contact with reality

5) Somatoform: Physical symptoms caused by psychological factors, not based off physical basis

Temporary state of tension and apprehension that is a natural response to a perceived threat

Anxiety Disorder: Anxiety that is excessive and unrealistic (differs from the norm)

Emotional Symptoms: Tension, apprehension

Cognitive Symptoms: Worry, impaired concentration

Physical Symptoms: Increased heart rate, muscle tension

Behavioral Symptoms: Avoidance of feared situation, performance impairment

*Most prevalent disorder in the US (18%)

Strong and irrational fears or specific objects and situation -- Often leads to avoidance

Usually occur at childhood

Degree of impairment depends on frequency of encounters with that stimulus

1) Arachnophobia: Fear of spiders

2) Ophidiophobia: Fear of snakes

3) Agoraphobia: Fear of situational with no easy escape (public places, buses)

4) Mysophobia: Fear of germs/dirts

Chronic state of diffuse anxiety that is not attached to specific objects or situations

Interferes with daily functioning

Onset occurs in childhood

Affects 5% of people age 15-45

Sudden, unpredictable, intense feelings of anxiety

Persistent, recurring panic attacks and avoidance of situation signifies a panic disorder

Appears in late adolescense, early adulthood

Affects 3.5%% of population

Obsessions: Reptitive, unwelcome thoughts/images that are hard to control/dismiss

Ex: Obsession of germs

Compulsions: Behavioral responses to obsessions, repetitive behaviors that helps neutralized the unwelcome images/thoughts

Ex: Counting

Severe anxiety disorders that arises following a traumatic life events

Reliving situations (dreams/nightmares/flashbacks)

Guilt (they survived while others people died)

Trauma caused by human actions (rape, torture, war) are 5x more likely than natural disaster caused PTSD

Women are twice as more likely to experience PTSD

Overreactive ANS

Overreactive neurotransmitters involved in emotional response

Overreactive right hemisphere involved with negative emotions (amygdala)

Episodic

Major depression: Intense, debilitating, depressed state that impairs functioning

Dystymia: Less intense, less debilitating, and more ongoing dysphona

Dysphoria: Neuroticism (tendency to be sad and pessimistic without functional impairment)

Emotional symptoms: Sadness, anxiety, hopelessness

Cognitive Symptoms: Negative feeloings about yourself and future

Somatic Symptoms: Sleep disturbances, lack of appetite, low energy

Loss of interest, motivation, and drive

4 Symptoms

"Depressed Mood"

for at least 2 weeks

40% will not experience another episode

50% will experience another episode

10% remain chronically low

Initial episode lasts 5-10 months w/o treatment

Suicide

Psychomotor Agitation

Interest deficit

Concentration deficit

Energy deficit, fatigue

Depressed Mood

Guilt, worthlessness, hopelessness, regret

Appetite change

Sleep disturbances

"SPICED GAS"

Depression that alternates with periods of highly excited mood/behavior

Mania/Manic: Person is euphoric and can see no limits

Failure to consider negative consequences and feelings of invulnerability

Hyperactive, high energy

Irritable/Aggressive when questioned

Depression puncuated with periods of euphoria without loss of contact with reality

Absence of psychotic symptoms

Treatment of psychological problems using psychological principles

Change maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behavior

5 perspectives on treatments

Ex: Feel anxious/worthless when boss criticizes work

1) Behavioral treatment: Change jobs, improve work, meditate

2) Biological treatment: Medication (prozac)

3) Cognitive treatment: Why should boss' criticism make you feel worthless? You do thing well (change thoughts)

4) Humanistic treatment: "It's normal to feel worthless but people love you"

5) Psychoanalysis treatment: Boss reminds you of your father, therapy for working out that relationship

Not the symptoms, its the actual problem

Classical, operant conditioning

Modelling

Learned behaviors

Classical conditioning

To treat phobias, expose clients to fear-inducing stimulus in a controlled environment while providing coping techniques

Types:

Imaginative exosure (trauma)

Virtual Reality exposure

"In vivo" -- In real life exposure

Gradual reduction in anxiety by exposing client to increasingly anxiety-provoking stimuli

Gradually build up coping skills

Classical conditioning

Counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior

Alcohol with nausea-enducing medicine

Classical conditioning

1) Behavior Modification

2) Token Economy: system for strengthening desired behaviors through the application of positive reinforcement

Exchanged for tangible resources

3) Behavioral Activation Therapy for Depression

Depression --> Reduced activities --> More depressed --> cycle

1) Mindfulness: Based theories mental state of awareness, focus, openness, and acceptance of immediate experiences (this moment in life)

Stres reduction, relapse-prevention

2) Acceptance & commitment therapy: Don't change thoughts, accept/embrace them, focus on mindfulness

3) Dialectial Behavior Therapy: treatment for suicidal patients, focus on mindfulness

Thoughts influence feelings

Interpretation of a situation leads to an emotional response to a situation

Treatment: Focus on the role of irrational and self-defeating thought patterns

Albert Ellis

A) The activating event that seem to trigger the emotion

B) The belief system that underlies the way in which a person appraises the event

C) The emotional and behavioral consequences

D) Disputing (challenging) erronous belief system

1) "All or Nothing" thinking: No middle ground

2) Overgeneralized: Extrapolate your future based on a single-event

3) Minimizing/Maxamizing: Inflating errors and discounting accomplishment

4) Fortune-telling: Predicting things will turn out badly no matter what you say or do

5) Shoulds/oughts: Treating expectations and desires as facts

Goal is to point out errors thinking and logic to help clients identify and reprogram their automatic thought pattern

Socratic: Questioning, logic

Theory of Depression

increased depression --> cognitive distortion --> depressed feelings

3 Major Categories

1) Antipsychotic Drugs

2) Antianxiety Drugs

3) Antidepressants Drugs

Antipsychotic

Blocks Dopamine release

Decrease positive symptoms, no affect on negative symptoms

Lithium

Glutamate levels constant

Misses the high, keeps you flat/numb

Anxiety

(Valium)

Increase GABA

Effective for GAD and Panic disorders

Not for OCD/PTSD

Increase Serotonin

Block other receptors sites, causing severe side-effects

Selectively block reuptake of serotonin

Takes weeks to improve mood

People have basic needs that are present from birth and continue throughout life -- Id

2 Forces prevent us from fulfiiling these needs whenever we want:

-Reality: It is dangerous to steal another person's meal (EGO)

-Morality: it is wrong to steal another person's meal (SUPEREGO)

Ability to balance competing forces

Balance is key

Lack of anxiety is the pay-off

Ego:

Under: Impulsive, unrestrained

Over: Timid, rigid, fearful

Superego:

Under: Immoral

Over: Inhibited, guilt-ridden

Each stage involves a conflict regarding the gratification of sexual (sensory) pleasure at a different body part

Ex: Erogenous Zones

Fixation: When a conflict is not resolved, person continues to seek pleasure at the unresolved stage

We are born capable of deriving sexual (sensory) pleasure from any part of the body

Through socialization, we learn to derive pleasure through one primary object (sexual intercourse with heterosexual partner)

Alternate between stuporous states and agitated excitement

Waxy flexibility: Their limbs can be molded by another person into positions that they will then maintain for hours

Destruction of neural tissue can cause schizophrenia

Brain atrophy and enlarged ventricles

The symptoms of schizophrenia (particularly positive symtoms) are produced by over-activity of the dopamine system in areas of the brain that regulate emotional expression, motivated behavior, and cognitive functioning

Psychosocial Factors

Dopamine Hypothesis

Psychoanalytical theorists: Schizophrenia is a retreat from unbearable stress and conflict (Regression)

Cognitive Theorists: Schizophrenia have a defeat in the attentional mechanisms that filters out irrelevant stimuli

Environmental Factors

Dopamine Hypothesis

Sociocultural Factors

Dopamine Hypothesis

1) Prevalance of Schizophrenia is highest in lower socioeconomic populations

2) Social Causation Hypothesis: Attributes higher prevelance to increased levels of stress that low-income people experience

3) Social Drift Hypothesis: As schizophrenia develops, personal and occupationall functioning deteriorates, so that people drift down the socioeconomic ladder

Stable, ingrained, inflexible, and maladaptive ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving

Affects 10%-15% of adults

3 Types:

1) Dramatic & impulsive

2) Anxious & fearful

3) Odd & eccentric

People who seem to lack a conscious

Impulsive, unable to delay gratification

Lack of emotional attachment to others

Males 3:Females 1

Often appear intelliget and charming

Failure to respond to punishment

Evidence before age 15

Habitual lying, aggressive sexual behaviors, excessive driniing/theft/vandalism

Symptoms characterized by serious instability in behavior, emotions, identity, and interpersonal relationships

Symptoms: Emotional dyregulation (inability to control negative emotions in responise to stressful life events)

Intense and unstable personal relationships

Chronic feelings of extreme anger, loneliness, and emptiness

Engaging in impulsive, self-destructive behaviors

Causes:

Chaotic personal histories (inconsistent parenting, sexual/physical abuse)

Splitting: Failure to integrate postive and negative aspects of another's behavior into a coherent whole

Genetic Factors

Biological factors: Abnormality in neurotrasmitter system or brain areas that regulate emotion

All psychological phenomena require psychic energy that can only be transferred from one task to another

Anxiety: Signals that Id impulises are not being gratified efficiently

Defense mechanisms quell anxiety by repressing unconcious conflicts, but requires energy

Psychological problems originate from repressed childhood impulses and conflicts

Goal of psychoanalysis is to slowly help patient discover/work-through unconscious conflicts, thereby freeing psychic energy for other tasks

Sessions are extensive, expensive, and impractical

1) Insight: Conscious awareness of unconscious conflicts

Done slowly or patient will be overwhelmed by anxiety

2) Free Association: Talking cure -- patient says whatever comes to mind no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Therapist looks for themes, signals of anxiety, and resistance

3) Resistance: Defense maneuvers that hinder therapy

By recognizing resistance, therapists know when emotionally charged issues are being discussed

4) Dreams: Freud believes dreams show unconcious conflicts

Id impulses come up from unconscious during dreaming

Because Id operates according to primary process thinkoing, these impulses are gratifying

Symbolic and must be decoded

Ego is relaxed, not active, during sleep

Uses variety of operations to disguise the Id impulse

Anxiety would be too high and we'd awaken from fright

Nightmares represent unfiltered dreams

Manifest Content: The recollected dream (its actual content)

Shouldn't be taken literally, represents a disguised wish to be presented symbollically

Latent Content: The dream's interpretation (hidden messages in the dream)

When a patient responds to therapist as if it were a parent

Most important process in achieving insight

Helps patient resolve childhood issues and cultivate intimacy with others

Interpersonal

Positive Transference: Patient transfers feelings of intense affections, dependency, or love to the analyst

Negative Transference: Irrational experssion of anger, hatred, fear, or disappointment are transferred onto therapist

Counter Transference: Positive or negative feelings a therapist has toward patients