Term
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Definition
| entire set of individuals of interest |
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Term
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Definition
Set of individuals selected from a population.
Intended to represent the population. |
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Term
sampling terminology
- element |
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Definition
| who or what are we studying. |
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Term
sampling terminology
- population |
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Definition
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Term
sampling terminology
- study population |
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Definition
| where the sample is selected |
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Term
sampling terminology
- sampling frame |
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Definition
| actual list of units to be selected |
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Term
sampling terminology
- parameter |
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Definition
| summary description of a given variable in a population |
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Term
sampling terminology
- statistic |
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Definition
| summary description of a given variable in a sample, we use sample statistics to make estimates or inferences of population parameters. |
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Term
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Definition
difference between the characteristics of a sample and characteristics from which it was drawn.
- ALWAYS A SAMPLING ERROR |
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Term
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Definition
| looks like the population from which it was selected in all respects that are potentially relevant to the study; distribution is similar and not over or under represented. |
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Term
| what are the two general categories in sampling? |
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Definition
Probability:
a method of selection in which each member of a population has a known chance or probability of being selected.
Non-Probability:
a method of selection other than a probability sample |
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Term
| what does probability sampling estimate? |
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Definition
| how close our statistic is to the parameter. |
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Term
probabilty sampling
- confidence interval |
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Definition
| +/- reported in news or on tv |
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Term
probability sampling
- confidence level |
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Definition
tells us the degrees of certainty
how often are you willing to be wrong? |
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Term
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Definition
| every member of a population is listed and members are then randomly selected for questioning. |
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Term
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Definition
| every member of a population is listed and every Kth member is then selected. |
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Term
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Definition
the total population is divided into groups (or strata) and then members of each group are randomly selected.
- political survey
- allocation of resources within a university |
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Term
| disproportionate stratified sampling |
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Definition
deliberately drawing a sample that over or under represents some characteristics of a population.
may do this to ensure that we obtain a sufficient number of uncommon cases in our sample.
- violent crime in rural areas vs. large cities |
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Term
| multi-stage cluster sampling |
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Definition
the entire population is divided into groups
- a random sample of these clusters is selected and all units within selected clusters are measured.
- may do this because it is sometimes cheaper and more convenient to sample the entire population randomly.
- especially when population elements are spread over a wide area. |
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Term
| multistage cluster sampling |
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Definition
useful when sampling frame is not available
- compile a stratified group (cluster), sample it, then subsample that set. |
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Term
| how is stratified sampling, disproportionate stratefied sampling, and multi-stage cluster sampling different? |
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Definition
in stratified sampling, SOME members of ALL groups are selected.
- in disproportionate stratified sampling SOME members of ALL groups are selected, but some groups will have a higher proportion of members sampled than others.
- in multistage cluster sampling, SOME members of SOME groups are selected. |
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Term
| nonprobability sampling methods |
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Definition
availability
quota
purposive
snowball |
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Term
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Definition
available and easy to find
convenience
conducting preliminary study
- no systematic technique
- sample not representative of any population |
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Term
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Definition
quotas are set to ensure sample characteristics are proportionate to their prevalence in population.
- similar to stratified probability sampling
-- less rigorous and precise in selection
-- more similar to availability |
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Term
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Definition
each element selected for a purpose
- use of judgment in whom to select
-- targeting knowledgable people
-- targeting certain offenders |
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Term
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Definition
hard to reach and hard to find populations
- interconnected populations
- gaining elements through informants |
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Term
| What are examples of collections of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions? |
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Definition
self-administered surveys
in-person interview surveys
telephone surveys |
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Term
| survey research in social sciences is an efficient method for data collection for? |
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Definition
counting crime
self-reports
perceptions and attitudes
policy proposals
targeted victim surveys
other evaluation uses |
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Term
| why is survey research popular? |
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Definition
versatile
efficient
generalizable |
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Term
| how do you conduct research? |
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Definition
establish goals of project
determine your sample
choose survey methodology
create questionnaire
pre-test the questionnaire
conduct interviews and enter data
analyze the data |
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Term
| pros and cons of self-administered surveys |
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Definition
pro
can get a large sample size
good for sensitive issues
low cost
con
inflexible
low response rate
electronic - acquiring a sampling frame |
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Term
pros and cons of in person interview
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Definition
pro
high response rate
good if literacy is an issue
high completion rate
con
high cost
reliability issues
- interviewer training is a must! |
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Term
| pros and cons of phone interviews |
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Definition
pro
interviewer convenience
ability to monitor interviewers
good if literacy is an issue
low cost
con
ease of "hang up" for interviewee
reliability issues
- interviewer training is a must! |
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Term
questionairre construction
(types of questions) |
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Definition
open-ended
restricted (close-ended)
partially open-ended
rating scale |
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Term
| contingency questions are? |
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Definition
relevant only to some respondents
- answered only based on their previous response
- uses filter questions and a skip pattern |
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Term
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Definition
| same set of answer categories used by multiple questions |
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Term
| how do you maximize the validity? |
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Definition
write clear, meaningful questions
.respondents choices should be naturally exclusive
.response categories should be exhaustive
.respondents must be willing and able to answer
.short items are best
.avoid biased items and terms |
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Term
| potential issues with questions |
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Definition
question order effect
assumption of knowledge
leading questions
double-barrled questions
response sets |
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Term
this is an example of?
"do you agree with this statement?"
a. the chinese govt. should be allowed to set limits on how much american industry can sell in china. yes/no
b. the amerian govt. should be allowed to set limits on how much chinese industry can sell in the U.S. yes/no |
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Definition
| question order effect example |
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Term
this is an example of?
- do men and women differ in their self-image?
- do you support the current interpretation of the miranda decision? |
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Definition
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Term
this is an example of?
do you still beat your spouse?
did you exercise your duty as a citizen and report this incident to police? |
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Definition
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Term
this is an example of?
is it important that an online shopping website be ethically pleasing and provide devoted detailed information about the company?
how would you rate the cleanliness and service at xxx? |
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Definition
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Term
| favoring a certain response, like the letter "c" is an example of? |
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Definition
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Term
| how do you gain cooperation? |
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Definition
cover letter
.increase response rate and honesty
.make it credible and personalized
timing
.avoid holiday seasons
.household v. business surveys
interviewer
.confident/assertive
.business-like
.people-person |
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Term
| what are 5 aspects of interviewer behavior? |
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Definition
presenting the study
asking the question
probing
recording answers
interpersonal relations |
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Term
| pros and cons of survey research |
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Definition
pro
high on reliability
.same survey goes out to everyone
.especially true for computer-assisted interviewing
con
low on validity
.hard to get the real content you're after
.not as accurate as observing directly |
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Term
quantitative
vs.
qualitative |
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Definition
quantitative
conduct experiments, evaluate policy innovations
.data is in the form of numbers and can be statistically analyzed
qualitative
theory - or hypothesis-generating activity
.data is in the form of words, pictures, or objects |
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Term
| field research is appropriate to which topics? |
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Definition
| ones that seem to defy quantification |
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Term
| what kind of perspective does field research adopt? |
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Definition
comprehensive perspective
.often no precisely defined hypothesis
.verstehen approach (FAE)
..researcher attempts to understand phenomena from the standpoint of the actors |
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Term
| What kind of theory is involved with field research? |
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Definition
grounded theory
.theory is developed during the data gathering |
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Term
| characteristics of participant observation |
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Definition
.demands on time and personal cost
.observer must attempt to operate mentally on two different levels
-becoming an insider
-remaining an outsider
.observer must avoid over socialization or "going native" |
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Term
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Definition
| researcher not only joins in, but actually begins to manipulate the direction of group activity |
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Term
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Definition
| researcher makes presence known and tries to objectively observe group activities |
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Term
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Definition
| research makes presence known but does not actively participate |
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Term
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Definition
| researcher observes without becoming a participant |
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Term
preparing for the field.
access to formal organizations
access to subcultures |
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Definition
access to formal organizations
.find a sponsor
.write a letter to the executive director
.arrange a phone call
.arrange a meeting
access to subcultures
.find an informant, use that person as your "in"
.snowball sampling is useful |
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Term
| two issues with samplign in field research |
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Definition
to what extent are the situations available for observation representative of the general phenomena you wish to describe and explain?
- are your actual observations within those total situations representative of all observations? |
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Term
sampling dimensions in field research
-population |
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Definition
| variation in behavior and characteristics |
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Term
sampling dimensions in field research
- space |
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Definition
| variation in behavior and physical characteristics of locations |
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Term
sampling dimensions in field research
- time, micro |
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Definition
.variations in behavior by time of day, day of week,
.lighting by time of day
.business, store, entertainment
.activities by time of day, day of week |
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Term
sampling dimensions in field research
- time, macro |
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Definition
variations in behavior by season, holiday
entertainment by season, holiday |
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Term
sampling dimensions in field research
- weather |
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Definition
| variations in behavior by weather |
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Term
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Definition
cameras and sound recorders
.actions
.conversations
field notes
.first sketchy notes and then rewrite in detail
.include "unimportant details"
.mnemonics
.time working on field notes:time in field = 4:1
structured observations
.like a closed-ended questionnaire
.environmental surveys |
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Term
| environmental surveys are? |
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Definition
structured observations in the field and recorded on specially designed forms
.record what an observer sees in the field
.what is the situation in which this is taking place?
.Not describing interactions. Just what you are seeing in the environment
.Different ways to study actions: Descriptive analysis sheet, frequency sheet, interval recording sheet |
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Term
| advantages of field research |
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Definition
.provides great depth of understanding
.less prejudgment, more flexible
.more appropriate than surveys to measure behavior
.high validity |
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Term
| disadvantages of field research |
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Definition
.low reliability
.generalizability low
.time consuming
.typically can't use probability sampling
.ethical dilemmas
.observer bias |
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Term
| illustrations of field research |
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Definition
.on being sane in insane places
.performances of identity: urban minority youth and a multicultural venture in growing up americano
.private lives of go-go dancers
.Complete observer situation: observing but not participating.
-Not interacting with the people you are studying.
.Observer as participant/participant as observer:
- mix of participation and observation….duhhhh |
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Term
| what are the two type of analyses? |
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Definition
analyzing previously collected data
.data from agency records
- agency records
.data from other researchers
- secondary data
content analyses
.analyzing social artifacts
NIJ – National institute of justice was one of first agencies to make data published by them available to the public. |
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Term
data sources
- primary data sources |
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Definition
| data collected first hand |
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Term
data sources
- secondary data sources |
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Definition
data that has already been collected
.secondary data analyses
- the reanalysis of data that were originally gathered or compiled for other purposes
.access
-freedom of information act
-- unless essential to national security, data should be available for legitimate research |
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Term
seondary analysis
- sources |
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Definition
.other researchers
.sources of agency records
- published data
- nonpublic agency records
- new data collected by agency staff |
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Term
| secondary analysis advantages |
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Definition
cheap
fast
benefit from work of skilled researchers
typically no IRB |
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Term
| secondary analysis disadvantages |
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Definition
.data might not be appropriate to your research question
.least useful for evaluation studies
.CANNOT make causal inferences |
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Term
| units of analysis of agency records |
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Definition
.beware of match or mismatch between units of analysis
.you can go
- individual -> aggregate
.you cannot go
- aggregate -> individual
-- danger of committing ecological fallacy |
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Term
| Limitations of agency records |
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Definition
data have been gathered for agency purposes, not research
.record keeping is a social process
.misinterpretation of codes
.incomplete data
reliability and validity issues
.changes in operational definitions of key terms over time
.changes in procedures over time
.data entry errors |
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Term
| researchers using secondary data must be able to answer: |
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Definition
what were agencies goals in collecting data?
who was responsible for data collection and what were their qualifications?
what data were collected to and what were they intended to measure?
when was the information collected?
what methods were used for data collection?
how if information organized?
- are there identifiers that are used to identify the different types of data available on the same case?
how consistent are the data with data available from other sources?
what is known about the success of the data-collection effort?
- how are missing data indicated?
- what kind of documentation is available? |
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Term
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Definition
systematic studying of messages
.well suited to answer "who said what, to whom, why, how, and with what effect?"
.a method for quantifying behavior must be defined |
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Term
| how to do a content analysis? |
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Definition
determine your research question
.manifest content- visible, surface content
.latent content - underlying meaning
determine your:
.universe
.units of analysis and sampling frame
.sample
determine your operational definitions
.exhaustive
.mutually exclusive
.derived from one conceptual framework
determine your observers
.blind to purpose of study
.have to check inter-rate reliability
code and analyze the darn thing! |
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