Pyknosis

Karyorrhexis

Karyolysis

population of cells arising from a single cell or endospore, or from a group of attached cells. They are all clones of one cell.

has additions of sterols, blood, serum, or egg yolk.

E.g. Sheep blood agar.

inhibits growth of some organisms but allows others to grow.  

E.g. mannitol salt agar (MSA) inhibits most organisms other than staphylococci.

1. Lag

2. Log (exponential)

3. Stationary

4. Death

Total # of cells constant.  

Endospore formation

secondary metabolite synthesis (toxins and antibiotics)

nutrient limitations.

any metabolic process that releases energy from a sugar or other organic molecule, does not require O₂ (but can occur in the presence O₂) or an electron transport system, and uses an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor.

Often produces acid or gas.

What are some signs of possible Coccidioidomycosis infection?

Non-specicific inflammation

Arizona Resident

Reduced TNF-alpha

Persistant cought or athesma

Major fever and chills

Sick 6-7 days

Losing weight without trying

Spinal nerves are named after the vertebrae above them except in cervical spine.  In the cervical spine, nerve C1 exits above the axis and there is a cervical nerve C8 that lies below the C7 vertebrae.

6.

Gluteal

Femoral

Knee

Leg

Talocrural

Foot

3.

Proximal= femoral

Intermediate= knee

Distal=foot

Proximal= arm

Intermediate= forearm

Distal= hand

going from a 3 layered Frisbee look into a bent tube within a tube.  Happens in week 4.  Broken into lateral and craniocaudal folding

Mesoderm splits.  As lateral aspects of embryo fold ventrally, the space between the layers of mesoderm forms future body cavities.

Head and “tail” regions bend towards each other, and embryo becomes “C” shaped

Happens in weeks 3-5

Paraxial mesoderm is organized into segments called somitomeres, these (starting at the head) are turned into somites.  These somites differentiate into schlerotomes, dermatomes, or myotomes.

1.Mesenchyme condenses and cells become chondrocytes.

2.By week 6 you have hyaline cartilage models of future bones.

3. Primary endochondral  ossification begins at the end of the embryonic period.

4. Diaphysis is completely ossified by birth

5. Secondary ossification of the epiphyses begins at birth

6. Epiphyseal plate remains for bone lengthening.

1. paraxial mesoderm is turned into somites

2. Somites is turned into mesenchyme

3. Mesenchyme condenses near base of limb bud

4. Each myotome receives innervation from spinal nerves derived from the same segment as the muscle cells.

Dorsal segments of C5, C6, C7, C8, T1

supplies extensor muscles

Ventral segmental branches of C8, and T1. 

Supplies flexor muscles

Ventral segmental brances of C6-T1

Supplies flexor muscles

superficial/cutaneous

hair, skin, nails

most common

subcutaneous

beneath the skin

rare, tropical (Mexico!)

systemic

deep w/in body

characteristic geographic regions (endemic mycoses)

E.g. Coccidioides immitis, southwestern U.S., Mexico, Central and South America

branching cylindrical tube found on molds.

Can be septate or coenocytic.

define mycelium

asexual spores not in a sac, in a chain

asexual spores on mold, in a sac

stainable structures resulting from virus induced changes in the host cell.

Diagnostic tool, look at the nature and location for characteristics of particular viral infections.

Intramolecular or intermolecular genetic exchange between related viruses or the virus and the host.

Two genes are SO similar they can recombine by taking parts of one strain 

coinfection with viruses of segmented genomes from different species and  (e.g., influenza viruses and reoviruses) → Epidemic significances? RISE OF COMPLETLEY NEW STRAIN, TISSUE TROPISM CHANGES, HOST HAS NO ABILITY TO DEAL WITH BRAND NEW STRAIN OF VIRUS

never been completely cleared from the host; always kept at a certain level in host

ability of viruses to integrate genome into host cell without killing it, can exist together, no viral replication (may have DNA synthesis and protein synthesis, but not actively replicating)

Different than chronic, do NOT display symptoms but when host immunity is compromised, infection can be reactivated

What must RNA viruses (+ or – sense) be equipped with in order to generate new viral protein and/or genome?

– sense must come in with own viral RNA polymerase

+ sense can simply ENCODE for the viral RNA polymerase, doesn’t have to have it initially

Which type of virus, once uncoated, will immediately be ready for viral protein synthesis?

A newly-identified virus has a small, non-enveloped virion particle and carries out the replication cycle exclusively in the cytoplasm of infected cells. When purified genomic nucleic acids of this virion are added to mammalian host cells, it results in the production of viral protein. This novel virus most likely has a ________ genome. 

group of one or more structurally or functionally related genes under the control of one promoter

Can provide the advantage of a coordinate expression all the grouped genes  (ex: pathogenicity island)

premature transcription termination resulted from change in the rate or efficiency of protein synthesis/ribosome movement on a nascent mRNA; unique in prokaryotes

phage DNA integrates into bacterial DNA. Integrated DNA is called a prophage and can remain in the integrated state for long periods of time

Destruction of most microbial life.  Does not destroy endospores. 

Inanimate objects

Rank the following in terms of resistance to sterilization/disinfection/antisepsis from most to least:

Naked virus, fungi, protozoan trophozoites, most bacterial vegetative cells, prion, mycobacteria, endospore, protozoan cysts, enveloped viruses, 

(MOST resistant)prion>endospore>mycobacteria, naked viruses, protozoan cysts, fungi>most bacterial vegetative cells, enveloped viruses, protozoan trophozoites (Least resistant)

20-80 healthy volunteers

establishes safety

100-300 patients

establish efficacy and dose

1000-5000 patients

verify efficacy and detect adverse affects

The death of cells or groups of cells (tissues) within a living organism.

(Heart, kidney, liver, spleen) The most common form of necrosis. Occurs when cell proteins are altered or denatured, similar to the coagulation that occurs when cooking eggs. Histologically, the cell outlines are preserved and the cytoplasm appears finely granular.

(brain) Refers to a process by which dead cells liquify under the influence of certain cell enzymes. The tissue becomes soft and gel-like.

(TB) A form of coagulative necrosis in which a thick, yellowish, cheesy substance forms.

(pancreas or breast) A specialized form of liquefaction necrosis caused by the action of lipolytic enzymes.

Necrotic tissue attracts calcium salts and frequently undergoes calcification.

Usually associated with increased serum calcium levels, leading to deposition of calcium in other locations.  You see formations of calcium carbonate stones is sites like the gallbladder, kidneys, and bladder.

How are apoptotic cells identified in tissue sections?

Apoptotic cells are recognized by nuclear fragmentation and pyknosis of individual cells or small groups of cells, in a background of viable cells.  Inflammation and necrosis is generally not present.

       Apoptotic cells appear shrunken with round or oval masses of bright pink or orange in the cytoplasm (apoptotic bodies), cytoplasmic blebs, and dense nuclear fragments 

Glucose

What is the normal fasting glucose levels?

What is too much/ too little called?

what disease is associated with too much?

70-99

Hyperglycemic, hypoglycemic

Fasting hyperglycemia is associated with DM

What is the normal levels of Na?

what is too much/ too little called?

136-146

Hypernatremia, hyponatremia

What is the normal concentration of potassium?

What is too much/little called?

3.5-5.1

Hyperkalemia, hypokalemia

What is the normal range for calcium?

What is too much/little called?

8.6-10.2

hypercalcemia, hypocalcemia

High LDL

Cigarette smoking

BP > 140/90

Men> 45; women > 55

HDL< 40

Male first degree relative under 55, female first degree relative under 65

Which of these has the most potency?

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Which of these has the highest effectiveness?

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AChE inhibitors

Muscarinic ACh receptor

Modern physiological theory hypothesizes that ______ dysfunction is the basis of pathophysiological states 

A ______ is an ensemble of similar cells from the same origin that together carry out a specific function

_______ are formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.

_______ is the functional part of an organ

____ is the structural part of an organ

connective, nervous, epithelial, and muscular tissue

·      smallest muscle cells, pink haze with dots under a microscope.

______ makes things bigger but not clearer

_______ makes things bigger and more clear.

Cells are living material, and undergo biochemical change that must be stopped. Kills the cell, stops autolysis and biochemical activity.  Usually uses aldehydes or freezing.

What is Loose areolar connective tissue composed of?

What is Reticular tissue made out of?

After ___ half lives you can assume that a process is nearly complete 

Zero Order: drug levels decrease a set ____ per UNIT of TIME 

First Order: drug levels decrease a constant _________ per UNIT of TIME (linear)

Define Vmax

maximum amount of drug that can be eliminated per unit of time

CYP 3A4

CYP 3A5

Describe what is meant by “prodrug” 

Prodrug- is an inactive parent drug which requires bio-activation for toxification (toxic metabolite formed from parent drug).  Inactive precursor that gets modified to become active.

List the 4 possible outcomes of liver drug metabolism 

Termination of drug action

Active metabolites can be formed (both parent and metabolites are active)

Make active metabolites from a prodrug. (bioactivation)

Toxification (toxic metabolite formed from parent drug)

______ speeds up the metabolism of other drugs.

Define the term “selective toxicity” 

Selective toxicity- refers to the ability of these drugs to kill or inhibit the growth of microbes, leaving the human host unharmed.

What is (MIC) minimal inhibitory concentration

amount of drug needed to inhibit growth in test tube.

Explain “de-escalation” of antimicrobial therapy 

Going from multiple drugs broad then focus down to one specific treatment.

_______ is a medical term referring to the initiation of treatment prior to determination of a firm diagnosis. It may be thought of as taking the initiative against an anticipated and likely cause of infectious disease. It is most often used when antibiotics are given to a person before the specific bacterium causing an infection is known.

An ________ is a local summary of selected antibiotic activity versus common bacterial isolates; it is used for drug formulary decisions and to guide empiric treatment

State the initial drug of choice for emergency treatment of severe allergic reactions 

Explain two clinical advantages that loratadine and fexofenadine have over diphenhydramine 

The best approach to motivate a patient to make behavioral changes designed to improve their over-all health is to