Darwin observed these in Argentina. They resemble today's armadillos and lived in the same place armadillos do now.

• Descent with modification 

•Lyll's principles of geology

•Subtle repetitive process of change had shaped earth

•Challenged the idea that the earth was only 6000 years old

Make up 64% of all fungal species.

Largest of all known phyla 

•Mutualist relationship with plants

•Helps plants grow (in the roots)

•No evidence of sexual reproduction 

• lack an observable sexual cycle

•crossing over of DNA happens in mitosis

Slender, typically 10- 50 times thinner than human hair

How they gain their nutrients

•single called and multicellular eukaryotes 

▪plant like (algae)

▪animal like (paramecium)

▪fungus like (slime molds)

Epidemics of the same disease in several populations of the world.

(AIDS, SARS 2003)

•smaller than viruses

•strands or circles if RNA

•no protein coding genes

•no protein coat

•cause many plant diseases

1 virus attaches to host cell

2 whole virus or genetic material enters host

3 turns cell into virus factory

4 cell begins to assemble new virus

5 cell bursts ando releases new virus

Stains pink

E. Coli

Lyme disease- tick borne

Stain purple

-yogurt 

Resist heat, drying, acids, disinfectants 

Tetanus and canned foods

• no membrane bound nucleus
• Single chromosome  (plasmid)
• Cell wall in most species
• Prokaryotic fission
• Metabolic diversity

• physical flow of alleles into a population 
• Tends to keep the gene pools of populations similar
• Counters the differences that result from mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift.

• Nonrandom mating of related individuals 
• Leads to increased homozygosity
• Can lower fitness when deleterious recessive alleles are expressed
• (Amish, cheetahs)

• Effect of drift when a small number of individuals start a new population
• By chance, allele frequencies of founders may not be the same as those in original population 
• Effect is pronounced on isolated islands

A severe reduction in population size 

Causes pronounced drift

Random change in allele frequencies brought about by change

Effects most pronounced in small populations

• Selection favors certain secondary sexual characteristics
• Through nonrandom mating, alleles for preferred traits increase 
• Leads to increased sexual dimorphism

3 possible outcomes

• A shift of the phenotypes in a consistent direction
• Stabilization of intermediate phenotypes
• Disruption of an existing range phenotype

Intermediate forms selected against forms at both ends of validation are flawed

(Either one beak size or the other no intermediates)

Intermediate forms of a trait are desired

Preserves the most common phenotypes 

A difference in the survival and reproductive success of different phenotypes 

Acts directly on phenotypes and indirectly on genotypes

Allele frequencies that give rise to phenotypic traits shift in a consistent direction

Pesticide resistance 

Antibiotic resistance 

1. No mutation 
2. Random mating
3. Gene doesn't affect survival or reproduction 
4. Large population 
5. No immigration/emigration 

Allele frequencies at a locus are not changing

Population is not evolving

• Mutation
• Crossing over in meiosis 1
• Independent assortment
• Fertilization
• Change in chromosome number or structure

All the genes in a population 

Genetic resource shared by all members of a population 

Irrevocable loss of species

Fossils show 20 or more large scale extinctions 

Reduced diversity is followed by adaptive radiation 

Gradual accumulation of differences in the gene pools of populations

Natural selection, genetic drift, and Mutation can contribute to divergence

"Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups."

-Ernest Mayr

• mtDNA mutates quickly 
• Inherited entirely from mother 
• Any changes due to mutation 
• Monitor change in eukaryotic population 

1. Populations have inherent reproductive capacity
2. No population can indefinitely grow
3. Individuals end up competing for resources 
4. Individuals have shared traits, genes are a pool of inheritable information
5. Mutations give rise to new alleles
6. Some phenotypes are better for competition
7. Natural selection results in adaptation