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| The study or behavior and mental processes |
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| Psychological perspective |
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| Neuroscience, evolutionary, behavior genetics, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and social-cultural |
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| how the body and brain create emotions, memories, and sensory experiments |
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| how nature selects traits that promote the perpetuation of one’s genes |
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| how much our genes and environment influence our individual differences |
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| how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts |
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| how we learn observable responses |
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| how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information |
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| how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures |
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Deals with psychological disorders
Psychologist vs. psychiatrist |
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Belief that after learning outcome, that we would have foreseen it
“I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Hypothesis |
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| Observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principals |
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| Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to influence, manipulate, or control the situation |
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| Statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other |
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| Correlation investigation |
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| Illusory correlation: perception of a relationship where none exists |
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| Manipulate one or more factors to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process |
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| Random assignment of participants the experiment controls other relevant factors |
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| condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
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| condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
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| Bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body |
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Neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down axon
Generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane |
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| Level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse |
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Chemical messengers that travel across the synapse between neurons
Released by sending neuron, cross synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron,
influencing whether it will create a neural impulse |
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| Part of peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs |
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Brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of brainstem
Directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and
medulla |
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| Two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion |
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| Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body sensations |
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| Brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain recognition following damage and in experiments on brain development |
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Large band of neural fibers
Connects the two brain hemispheres
Carries messages between the hemispheres |
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| Rod-like bodies, present in every human cell, made up of proteins and strands of DNA |
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| Set of expected behaviors for males and females |
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biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segment of DNA capable of
synthesizing a protein |
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| proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes |
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| Person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity |
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| Environment inside uterus where the unborn child is developing |
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Agents that disrupt prenatal development
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: leading cause of mental retardation |
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| Understood rule for accepted and expected behavior; “proper” behavior |
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| fertilized egg, rapid cell division; conception to 2 weeks |
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| organs like heart and liver begin to function; 2 through 8 weeks |
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| developing human organism; 9 weeks to birth |
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Human voices and faces
Smell and sound of mother preferred |
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| Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational |
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| experiencing the world through senses and actions; birth to 2 years |
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| representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning; 2 to 6 years |
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| thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations; 7 to 11 years |
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| abstract reasoning; 12 to adulthood |
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| Preconventional, conventional, postconventional |
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| morality of self-interest- to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards |
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| morality of law and social rules- gain approval or avoid disapproval |
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| morality of abstract principles- affirm agreed-upon rights and personal ethical principles |
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| Psychological stages of development |
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| Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, competence vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, generativity vs. stagnation, integrity vs. dispair |
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| dependably met needs → infants develop sense of basic trust; infancy |
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| Autonomy vs. shame and doubt |
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| learn to exercise will and independent action; toddler |
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| initiate tasks and carry out plans; preschooler |
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| Competence vs. inferiority |
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| applying self successfully to tasks; elementary |
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| Identity vs. role confusion |
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| work at refining sense of self by testing and integrating roles to form single identity; adolescence |
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| Generativity vs. stagnation |
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| sense of contributing to the world; middle adult |
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| sense of satisfaction following reflection of one’s life; late adult |
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| bottom-up processing; sense receptors to brain integration, registration of physical stimuli |
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| top-down processing; higher-level mental processes, interpret sensations and provide meaning |
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| Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time |
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| Concept that the size of a JND is proportional to the intensity of the standard |
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| Loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while |
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| Tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes |
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| Two main visual components necessary for a person to see an object properly; figure and ground |
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Perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
Group based on proximity, similarity, continuity, and closures |
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Images from the two eyes differ
Closer the object, the larger the disparity |
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| Closer object blocks distant object |
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| Depth cues (linear perspective and texture) help the visual system judge the size |
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| Ability to adjust to an artificially displaced visual field |
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| Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another |
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| Same physical stimulus can be interpreted differently; use other cues in the situation to resolve ambiguities |
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| Theory that human psychology can be studied only through the examination and analysis of objectively observable and quantifiable behavioral events |
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| Organism comes to associate two stimuli; a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus |
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Research with the dogs and how they began to salivate even before they got their food after undergoing the procedure a number of times
Deals with classical conditioning and neutral stimulus |
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| stimulus that unconditionally- automatically and naturally- triggers a response |
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| unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus |
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| originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
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| learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus |
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| process of acquiring a conditioned response |
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| reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR |
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| Tendency for the stimuli similar to CS to elicit similar responses |
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| Conditioning in which the consequences of a behavior affect the probability that the behavior will be repeated in the future |
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| Operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired goal |
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Positive: add positive stimulus
Negative: Remove aversive stimulus |
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| reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs |
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| reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition; greater resistance to extinction |
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| reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses; faster you respond the more rewards you get; very high rate of responding |
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| reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses; very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability |
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| reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed; response becomes more frequently as the anticipated time for reward draws near |
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| reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals; produces slow steadying responding |
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Positive: administer an aversive stimulus
Negative: withdraw a desirable stimulus |
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| unconscious encoding of incidental information, well-learned information |
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| requires attention and conscious effort, conscious repetition of information |
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| encoding of meaning, meaning of words |
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| encoding of sounds, sounds of words |
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| encoding of picture images |
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| organizing items into familiar, manageable units; use of acronyms |
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| momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic or picture image memory |
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| momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli |
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| immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system |
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| focuses more on the processing of the briefly stored information |
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| activated memory that holds a few items at a time; look up a phone number |
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| relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system |
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| Increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation |
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| memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare |
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| retention independent of conscious recollection |
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| measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier; fill-in-the-blank |
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| measure of memory in which the person has only to identify the items previously learned; multiple-choice test |
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| tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood |
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| what is learned in one state can be more easily remembered when in same state |
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| know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully |
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| ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions |
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| measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance |
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| 2 years and 6 months to 7 years and 7 months |
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| 6 years to 16 years and 11 months |
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| 16 years to 90 years and 11 months |
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| Factors of Wechsler tests |
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| Verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed |
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| Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100 |
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| test designed to predict a person’s future performance; capacity to learn |
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| test designed to assess what a person has learned |
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| extent to which a test yields consistent results |
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| extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to |
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| An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting |
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| Method of exploring the unconscious; person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind no matter how trivial or embarrassing |
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| Structures of their personality |
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| Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious |
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| all things we are aware of at any given moment |
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| everything that can, with little effort, be brought into consciousness |
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| inaccessible warehouse of anxiety-producing thoughts and drives |
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| ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality |
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| basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness |
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| individual retreats, when faced with anxiety, to a more infantile stage of development |
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| ego unconsciously switched unacceptable impulses into their opposites; express feeling that are opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings |
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| people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others |
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| offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions |
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| shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person |
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| rechanneling of unacceptable impulses into socially approved activities |
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| Assumption: people will project their unconscious feelings and conflicts onto the ambiguous test material |
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| seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of inkblots |
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| Thematic Apperception Test |
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| people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up ambiguous scenes |
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| primitive and unconscious part of personality; not reality based |
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| largely conscious part of personality; reality based; mediates between id and superego |
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| spans all levels of consciousness; not reality based |
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| Pattern of characteristic behavior and conscious motives |
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| Statistical tool that helps identify strong relationships among behaviors |
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| Eysenck's Two-Factor Theory |
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Definition
| two primary personality factors as axes for describing personality variation |
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Definition
Neuroticism- calm vs. anxious, secure vs. insecure, self-satisfied vs. self-pitying
Extraversion- sociable vs. retiring, fun-loving vs. sober, affectionate vs. reserved
Openness- imaginative vs. practical, variety vs. routine, independent vs. conforming
Agreeableness- softhearted vs. ruthless, trusting vs. suspicious, helpful vs. uncooperative
Conscientiousness- organized vs. disorganized, careful vs. careless, disciplined vs. impulsive |
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Definition
Real: Who am I?
Ideal: Who would I like to be?
Discrepancies: self-esteem: defined by the match between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves |
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| Unconditioned Positive Regard |
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| An attitude of total acceptance toward another person |
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| Realization of one’s dreams and capabilities |
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| Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |
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| Physiological needs → Safety needs → Belongingness and love needs → Esteem needs → Self-actualization needs |
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| Interacting influences between personality and environmental factors |
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| Hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events |
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| Generalized Anxiety Disorder |
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Definition
| Constant “free-floating” muscular tension and physiological arousal; fear about what is going to happen next |
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Definition
Persistent, irrational fear of a specific object or situation
Behavioral therapy works best with phobias |
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| Euphoria, high energy, hyperactivity, grandiose optimism and self-esteem; often includes sexual promiscuity, recklessness, over-spending |
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| Hopelessness and lethargy |
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Norepinephrine: increase arousal, elevates mood; when depress, low; when manic, high
Serotonin: influences mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; when low, either depressed or manic |
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Definition
| Neurotransmitters involved with depression |
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| Most effective treatment for depression |
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| preoccupation with delusions or hallucinations |
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| Disorganized schizophrenia |
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Definition
| disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotions |
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Definition
| immobility/ excessive, purposeless movement, extreme negativism, parrot-like repeating of another’s speech or movements |
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| Undifferentiated schizophrenia |
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| symptoms without fitting one of the above types |
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| Symptoms of schizophrenia |
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Definition
Positive: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral excesses; hallucinations and delusions
Negative: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral deficits; flat expression, impoverished speech, stiff posture, apathy |
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| Neurotransmitters involved with schizophrenia |
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Definition
| Dopamine: increased rates of transmission |
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| Chooses techniques from several theories; lack consistency and adds too many variables |
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| feelings of emotions linked with other relationships are transferred to the analyst |
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| Therapists reactions to client's transference |
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| helps individuals gain insight into unconscious origins of the difficulties; use of free association and interpretation |
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| change observable behavior; use of counterconditioning and systematic |
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| teach people more constructive ways of thinking; show people absurdity of their self defeating ideas |
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| active listening, therapist expresses genuineness, acceptance, and empathy to facilitate growth |
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| Condition new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors |
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| Pair unpleasant state with harmful behavior |
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| Patient displays desired behavior → receive token or sticker to be exchanged for rewards |
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| Client confronts feelings or phobias or anxieties about a traumatic event; best used for phobias |
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| Systematic desensitization |
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Pair pleasant relaxed state with fear-arousing stimulus
Commonly used to treat phobias |
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| Properties to define one's sex |
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Definition
Physiological/biological
23rd pair of chromosomes: XX or XY
Gonads (ovaries/testes)
Gonadal hormones (estrogen/progesterone or androgens)
Internal reproductive structures
External genitalia
Secondary sex characteristics (at puberty) |
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| Properties to define one's gender |
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Definition
Social/psychological
Masculinity: actively influential
Femininity: feelings and emotions
Androgyny: both (becomes more prominent when you become more educated) |
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SRY gene on the Y chromosome → Testes → Androgens → Male physiology
Female is “default” condition; low levels of androgens allow the embryo to “remain” female
Differences in brain
-Size of brain parts
-Function of brain parts
-Corresponding cognitive function
-Which part of brain is involved in particular behaviors |
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Definition
Biological: genes, prenatal hormones, brain differences; behavioral difference in newborns and infants
Evolutionary: selection pressures for gendered behavior (competition for mate, preferences for quality mate, and reproductive challenges of quality vs. quantity) |
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