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| created the first recorded psychological experiment. |
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| behaviorists that observed behavior in classical and operant conditioning |
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| how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts |
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| passes and takes messages away from the cell body |
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| transmit messages from the cell body to other neurons |
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| covers axon and helps speed neural impulses |
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| junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. (Think of this as two old ladies kissing cheeks) |
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| the "knew-it-all-along" phenomenon; after discovering the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted the same outcome |
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| phenomenon where we think we know more than we do |
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when one behavior accompanies another.
(Correlation does not imply causation!) |
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| every member of a sample could fulfill any spot or even multiple spots |
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| neither the participant nor the experimenter know which treatment the participant is receiving. (used especially in drug testing experiments) |
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| manipulated by the experimenter |
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| may or may not change due to the Independent Variable |
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| (neurotransmitter) influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion. Not enough = Parkinson's. Too much = Schizophrenia |
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| molecules from chemicals that mimics neurotransmitter and excites/INCREASES the effects. |
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| molecule from chemicals that mimics neurotransmitter by inhibiting/DECREASING the effect |
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| Sympathetic Nervous System |
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| Autonomic Nervous System division that arouses the body, mobilizes energy, accelerates heartbeat, raises blood pressure, slows digestion. (Fight or flight) |
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| Parasympathetic Nervous System |
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| Conserves energy as it calms the body down. (Decreases heartbeat, lowers blood sugar, etc) |
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| located at the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
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| transmits sensory information to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (sensory switchboard) |
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| "little brain" behind brainstem; controls balance, voluntary movement, and somatic system |
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| made up of the amygdala, hypothalamus |
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| control aggression and fear |
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| controls hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual behaviors, and other emotions; helps govern endocrine system |
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| 46 chromosomes (made of DNA) in the nucleus; 23 from each parent |
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| helped behavioral geneticists to study gene and environment contributions |
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| personality traits are naturally selected (Darwin) |
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| Culture and Gender Variation |
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| each cultures behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions change and are unique |
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| independent, unique, change reality |
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| interdependent, all about the group as a whole, accommodates to reality |
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| combination of social and biological construction |
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| Newborns have reflexes, sensory capabilities, and preferences for certain people. They scream, cry, and have a preference for facial structures. |
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| worked with monkeys; showed mothers and infants need interpersonal connection |
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| parent is a secure base and the baby is distressed when parent leaves, but is easily calmed and comforted upon return; free to walk around |
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| parent is unable to calm down the distressed baby after she leaves, or the baby is indifferent to her leaving and returning |
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| process by which we detect physical energy from a stimulus (through our senses) |
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| process of how we select, organize, and interpret sensations (what we do with our sensory input; when we interpret sensation and give it meaning) |
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| minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time |
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| minimum difference in stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time |
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| two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than constant amount) to be perceived as different) |
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| diminished sensitivity to constant stimulation (putting on a band-aid and forgetting about the wound) |
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| processing several aspects of the stimulus simultaneously |
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| organizing the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings |
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| organizing figures into meaningful forms |
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| focusing awareness on a single stimulus (cocktail party phenomenon) |
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| multi-tasking; the ability to distribute one's attention and simultaneously engage in two or more activites |
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| the inability to see an object or person in our midst (the gorilla in the basketball game) |
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| something major changes in the scene and the viewer does not notice (clothing changes and direction giver changes) |
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| rhythm of sleep; 1,2,3,4,REM,4,3,2,REM |
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| persistent inability to sleep |
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| overcoming urge to fall asleep that may occur while talking or standing |
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| failure to breathe while sleeping |
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| repeated use of drugs increases tolerance and you develop the need for a larger dose to achieve same altered state |
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| bad effects after quitting drugs |
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| learning to associate one stimulus with another |
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| one must actively do something to receive a reward or punishment |
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| deals with relationship between two independent stimuli (Pavlov's Dogs) |
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Unconditioned stimulus (US): food
Unconditioned Response (UR): salivating
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): bell
Conditioned Response (CR): salivating |
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| showing the same CR to any stimulus similar to the original CS |
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| learning to distinguish between the CS and different stimuli |
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provides a stimulus for a consequence that increases behavior
-positive: provides a positive stimulus (hug, paycheck)
-negative: removes aversive stimulus (fasten seatbelt to turn off beeping) |
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consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again
-positive: providing aversive stimulus (scolding child)
-negative: removing positive stimulus (grounding) |
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| encouraging a new behavior by reinforcing successive approximation (teaching an animal new tricks) |
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| failure to reward behavior |
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| watching others to see what happens (Bandura's Bobo doll studies) |
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| some information is automatically processed but new/unusual information requires attention and effort |
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| retaining information better when it is rehearsed over time |
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| when your recall is better for the first and last items on a list, but poor for middle |
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| cues we associate with things we are learning |
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| best representative of a concept |
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| hit or miss approach; random and not very effective |
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| step by step pattern guaranteed to find a solution, very time consuming |
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| shortcuts which are rules of thumb that allows one to make quick but often wrong judgments |
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| coming up with an answer out of the blue; A-ha moment |
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| tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias, often leads us astray from the right answer |
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| inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective; stuck in a mental rut |
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| tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions |
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| hard to change our mind of way of thinking even if it's been proven wrong |
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| likelihood of an event due to judgment and in terms of how typical and similar to the prototype it seems |
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| tendency to estimate the probability of an event in terms of how easily you can recall instances of it |
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birth: cooing, crying, gurgling
4-6 mo: babbling
1yr: 1st words, brief words
2yr: telegraphic speech, mini sentences |
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| degree to which a test gives consistent results |
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| test measures what it is claiming to measure |
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| (instinct theory) need --> drive --> drive-reducing behavior |
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| need to maintain an optimum feeling of arousal |
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1. Self Actualization: living up to one's potential
2. Esteem: achievement, competence
3. Belongingess & Love
4. Safety: world is organized and predictable
5. Physiological: hunger/thirst |
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| stomach contractions send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger through the sensory neurons in our stomachs (handled by hypothalamus) |
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| biologically determined standard around which body weight is regulated |
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| desire to perform behavior for your own sake |
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| desires to behave certain way to gain reward or avoid punishment |
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| physiological activity precedes emotional experience; muscles already being contracted in facial expressions illustrate this |
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| conscious experience and physiological arousal occur simultaneously |
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| physiology and cognitions create emotions |
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| circumstance that threatens a person's well being in any circumstance which can be real or made-up |
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| makes us react with fight or flight; tells us that we need to act somehow |
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| prolonged or chronic stress; increases our risk of illness and health problems and affect our quality of life |
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| Stressors are a stimulus (the event that happens); stress is a response (how you respond to it) |
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| Cannon's Stress Response System |
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| Increased heart rate & respiration, mobilized energy, dulling pain |
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| General Adaptation Syndrome |
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-Alarm
-Resistence
-Exhaustion |
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Catastrophic events
Daily Hassles
Significant life changes |
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| stress that leads to elevated blood pressure may result in coronary heart disease, a clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle |
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| competitive, uptight, hard-driven, easily angered, impatient, aggressive (bad for heart) |
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| laidback, easy going, relaxed, optimistic (good for heart) |
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direct: negative feelings, headaches, ect
indirect: eat more, drink more, smoking & drugs |
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| actively do something to change results; takes place when you have control over a situation |
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| works best when you can't change the situation; makes you feel better about the presence of the stressor |
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| if you know/think you have control over something, you feel less adverse effects from stressors |
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| explaining things that happen in a positive light (being optimistic); people like this tend to have more personal control over situation, better immune system, moods, and coping |
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| Biofeedback, Relaxation, Meditation |
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| a machine tells you your heart rate and other information so you can see your arousal factors and attempt to calm them down |
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| unconscious strives to satisfy basic sexual/aggressive drives |
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| preconscious, unconscious but is accessible to conscious by providing standards for judgment and future aspirations |
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| conscious, "executive" branch which mediates the demands of the id and the superego |
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| suppressing memories that would cause anxiety |
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| most disputed defense mechanism, when facing anxiety, retreating to a younger age or psychosexual age |
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| ego switches unacceptable impulses into the opposite reactions (overcompensating for negative feelings) |
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| people disguise their own threatening impulse by attributing them to others |
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| making excuses for your aggressive actions |
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| shifting impulses toward a more acceptable target |
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Five Factor Traits
(CANOE) |
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Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness
Extraversion |
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| tendency to think personality descriptions are accurate |
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| we think about ourselves more than other people do and we overestimate how much attention others are giving us |
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| we accept responsibility for good deeds and successes |
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Frontal: front of the brain; speaking, muscle movement Parietal: top of head; sensory input for touch/body position Occipital: back of head; vision Temporal: above ears; auditory information |
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| Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development** |
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sensorimotor: lack of object permanence (peek a boo)
preoperational: egocentric thoughts ("You remember what happened because you were in my dream"); conservation of mass
concrete operational: logical operations
formal operational: capable of abstract thought (algebra) |
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authoritative: sets rules and guidelines, but are supportive with the opinions of the child
authoritarian: strict parents who live strictly by guidelines and expect obedience
permissive: submit to all desires; virtually no rules |
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| Colbert's Moral Development** |
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preconventional: obey to avoid punishment or to gain rewards
conventional: cares for others, upholds laws because they are laws
postconventional: based on morals & develops own judgment (gray area) |
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| Erikson's Social Development Theory** |
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(must go through stages to advance in age)
adolescence crisis: identity vs. role confusion (refining self identity)
young adulthood crisis: intimacy vs isolation (struggle to form close relationships) |
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| Freud's Psychosexual Stages** |
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oral (0-18 mo): pleasure centers on mouth; nursing, sucking, biting, chewing
anal (18-36 mo): pleasure focuses on bowl and bladder elimination; potty training
phallic (3-6 yrs): pleasure zone in genitals; Oedipus complex (incestuous feelings)
latency (6yr-puberty): dormant sexual feelings
genital (puberty on): maturation of sexual interests |
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retinal disparity: images from both eyes differ, the closer the object the larger the disparity
convergence: neuromuscular cue where eyes move inwards for near objects |
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relative size: if two objects are similar in size we perceive the one that casts a small image to be farther away
interposition: objects that block other objects are perceived as closer
relative height: objects that are taller seem to be farther away than shorter objects
light and shadow: nearby objects reflect more light into our eyes than more distant objects
relative motion: objects closer to us seem to move faster than objects farther away
linear perspective: parallel lines appear to converge in the distane
color constancy: perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even while changing illumination filters the light reflected by it
size-distance relationship: using variety of cues to view objects as stable in size |
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Alpha Waves (Almost Stage 1): transition into sleep
Theta Waves (Stages 1&2): Heart reate and blood pressure slow down; spindles
Delta Waves (Stages 3&4): long and rhythmic waves start to form
REM (stage 5): dreams and temporary muscle paralysis |
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