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| the conclusion, or idea, you want your audience to accept |
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| the reasoning step; the logical steps that relate the data to the claim |
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| the evidence that supports the claim |
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| a deficiency in the form of an argument that is not immediately apparent. |
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| result from the inexactness of language |
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| the use of the same word to convey different meanings in the same argument. |
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| results when we cannot be sure which of a set of possible meanings is the intended meaning. |
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| a situation in which a term or concept is indeterminate. |
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| not knowing precisely when a difference in degree becomes a difference in kind |
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| an argument that suggests that a seemingly trivial or inconsequential action will start an irreversible chain of events leading to catastrophe. |
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| deficiencies in relevance |
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| result from introducing a factor that has nothing to do with the relationship between the evidence and the claim |
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| an attack on a person is substituted for a response to an argument |
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| fallacies if they substitute for argument or if the authority is outside the area of his or her expertise or has no basis for reaching conclusions |
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| substitute the fact that others support an idea for an argument in its behalf |
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| saying that we should continue with something because we have always done it that way |
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| assume that a claim must be true (or false) because the opposite position cannot be proved (or disproved) |
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| appeals to inappropriate emotion |
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| prevent argument through expressions of anger, fear, or other emotions impervious to argument |
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| result from failure to provide necessary proofs, leaving “holes” or empty spaces in the argument |
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| occurs when the evidence simply restates the conclusion in different words |
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| occurs when a claim is made dependent on other claims that are implicitly assumed but have not established in the argument |
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| the result of a digression or a focus on matter extraneous to the situation at hand; “red herring” |
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| an argument in which, on the face of it, no connection exists between the claim and the evidence |
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| when one’s argument responds to a claim that has not been made and that is not in dispute, rather than to the relevant claim |
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| an argument that does not admit of any possible testing or falsification because it can encompass seemingly opposite results. |
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