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Extra credit vocabulary
Extra credit test vocab study guide
114
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12th Grade
12/10/2006

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Term
policy agenda
Definition
those issues that are receiving the serious attention of policymakers
Term
politics
Definition
who gets what when and how in the political process
Term
policymaking institutions
Definition
those institutions (Congress, the President, the courts, and the bureaucracy) that are responsible for making public policy in the American political system.
Term
linkage institutions
Definition
those institutions (political parties, elections, special interest groups and the new media) the policy agenda; the channels through wich people's concerns become political issues o nteh government's policy agenda
Term
public policy
Definition
a choice that government makes in response to a political issue (a course of actions or inaction); includes: congressional statutes, bureaucratic rules and regulations, executive orders, court decisions, presidential decisions
Term
majority
Definition
50% + 1 (one more than half)
Term
plurality
Definition
the moste votes but not necessarily a majority
Term
pluralist theory
Definition
belief that many groups competing for power express the public will; a theory of group competition that emphasizes multiple access points and a positive view of group competition
Term
elite/class theory
Definition
a theory of gov. and pol. that contends that society is divided along class lines and a welthy or upper class elite will rule regardless of the gov. sturcture; belief that big business, the welthy, or even technical experts have the greatest influence in American gov.
Term
hyperpluralism
Definition
a group theory of politics that contends that groups are so strong that gov. is weakened; an extreme, exaggerated, or preverted form of pluralism; goner bad--too many groups create gridlock and contradictory policies
Term
factions
Definition
term used by Fouding Fathers to refer to self-interested groups and political parties are examples of what Madison and others had in mind; in The Federalist #10, Madison explained that majority factions would ocntrol minority factions, but a large republic was needed to control majority factions.
Term
Shay's Rebellion
Definition
a series of attacks o ncourhouses by a small band of farmers led by Daniel Shays in 1786; was a catalyst for the Constitutional Convention; Founding Fathers viewd it as evidence of the need for a much stronger natioal gov.
Term
Connecticut Compromise
Definition
the major compromise made at the Constitutional Convention that combined the Virginia (representation based on populations) and the New Jersey (equal representation of the states) plans to create a bicameral Congress consisting of a Senate with two Senators per state and a House of Representatives based on population
Term
Madisonian Model
Definition
plan for government designed by Madison to keep as much power as possible out of the hand s of the people (to prevent majority factions from taking over government) by a system of separation of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial branches) and checks and balances; the only part of the government directly elected by the people in the original plan was the House of Representatives.
Term
Federalist Papers
Definition
a collection of 85 articles written by Hamilton, Madison and Jay in support of ratificatoin of the U.S. Constitution; the articles explain the intent of the Founding Fathers in writing the Constitution
Term
separation of powers
Definition
principle of the Constition that calls for three separate braches (legislative, executive, and judicial) of government, each with separate but overlapping or shared powers
Term
checks and balances
Definition
a principle of the Constitution that seeks a balance of power between the various branches of government by giving each branch the ability to check the powers of the other branches
Term
judicial review
Definition
the power of the courts to determine the constitutionality of government actions (declare laws or presidential actions unconstitutional in cases before them); resulted from the Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison, 1803.
Term
supremacy clause
Definition
Article VI of the Constitution establishes the U.S. Constitution, U.S. laws and treaties the supreme law of the land; establishes national supremacy in areas where the national government has legitimate power; the linchpin of our federal system of government.
Term
necessary and proper clause
Definition
: Article 1, Section 8, Clause 18 of the Constitution gives Congress the power to do what is necessary and proper to carry out its stated powers; stretches the power of the national government beyond what is specifically stated in the Constitution; also called the ELASTIC CLAUSE.
Term
reserved powers
Definition
state powers; those powers not delegated to the national government nor denied to the states; authorized by the 10th Amendment.
Term
enumerated powers
Definition
powers of the national government specifically stated in the Constitution; also called expressed powers.
Term
implied powers
Definition
powers of the national government not specifically stated in the Constitution but reasonably derived from those that are; based on the necessary and proper clause; can expand the powers of the national government at the expense of the states.
Term
full faith and credit clause
Definition
a clause in Article IV of the Constitution that requires states to give full faith and credit to the civil acts, records and judicial proceedings of other states; allows the use of a Texas drivers license while temporarily driving in other states (also usually applies to marriage certificates; adoption records, wills and deeds).
Term
dual federalism
Definition
division of powers between the national and state governments is distinct and clear – like a layer cake; each level of government is relatively supreme within its own sphere of power; requires a narrow interpretation of the national government’s powers.
Term
cooperative federalism
Definition
a type of federalism in which powers and policy assignments are shared between the levels of government; like a “marble cake” in that national and state powers are mingled and the distinction between the two is blurred; typically entails a broad interpretation of national government power; examples include the interstate highway system; typical characteristics include: shared costs, shared administration and federal guidelines.
Term
fiscal federalism
Definition
the parrern of spending, taxing and providing grants in federal system; it is the main way in which the national government exerts its authority over traditonal areas of state authority by providing the money or a portion of the money for projects and programs; the issue of "who pays?"
Term
block grant
Definition
federal grant to the state or local communities to support broad programs or areas at state discretion; fewer strings attached than categorical grants and more options for spending by state and local governments.
Term
categorical grant
Definition
federal grant that can be used only for specific purposes, or “categories,” of state and local spending; come with strings attached – federal guidelines for the use of the money and typically shared costs and administration.
Term
devolution
Definition
a trend toward returning power to the state and local communities by reducing national authority and reinstating state and local authority in certain programs and policy areas; typically involves greater fiscal responsibility for the states and local communities.
Term
selective incorporation
Definition
the process of the Supreme Court applying selected rights/freedoms in the Bill of Rights to the states through the due process clause of the 14th Amendment on a case by case basis. Via incorporation, states, as well as the national government, are limited by selected provisions of the Bill of Rights.
Term
established clause
Definition
clause in the First Amendment that states that Congress can “make no law respecting an establishment of religion” – strictly interpreted it was intended to restrict Congress from establishing a national religion. Has been interpreted to mean there should be a separation between church and state.
Term
free exercise clause
Definition
clause in the First Amendment that prevents Congress from passing laws that restrict the “free exercise of religion;” it was intended to guarantee freedom of religion.
Term
exclusionary rule
Definition
illegally obtained (police not following established rules) evidence cannot be used in court against a criminal defendant; interpretation of the 4th Amendment’s right against unreasonable searches and seizures that protects against illegal searches.
Term
plea bargain
Definition
practice within the criminal justice system to offer criminal defendants a reduced sentence if they plead guilty to a lesser crime and avoid a lengthy trial; most criminal cases are decided through plea bargains.
Term
affirmative action
Definition
policy designed to give special attention to or compensatory treatment of members of some previously disadvantaged group to make up for past discrimination; typically applies to minorities and women in hiring and admissions policies.
Term
due process clause
Definition
life, liberty or property cannot be taken away by the national (5th Amendment) or state (14th Amendment) government without due process of law --- government must act fairly and the law itself must be fair; established rules of procedure (lawyer, informed of rights, fair trial, etc.) that government must follow to deprive someone of life, liberty or property.
Term
minority majority
Definition
a demographic trend in which the sum of all minority groups will be the majority in the population, replacing whites as the majority group
Term
political culture
Definition
an overall set of values widely shared within a society (American political culture includes a strong emphasis on individualism, limited government, political and social freedom and equality; does not typically include economic equality).
Term
liberalism
Definition
a political ideology (political belief system) that typically facors (preference for) freedom over order and equality over economic freedom
Term
conservatism
Definition
: political ideology (political belief system) that typically favors (preference for) order over freedom and economic freedom (laissez-faire) over equality
Term
gender gap
Definition
a trnd of the laste few decades in which woment have a greater tendency to vote Democratic than men who have a greater tendency to vote Republican than women
Term
gerry mandering
Definition
the practice of drawing congressional district lines to favor the party of group in power; may result in odd-shaped districts.
Term
political socialization
Definition
the process of acquiring one’s political beliefs and behaviors; passing on our political values to the next generation; key agents of political socialization are the family, school and media.
Term
media event
Definition
a staged political event to obtain free media coverage or to provide a positive image to the public bia the media
Term
horse race journalism
Definition
the focus in the news media on who is ahead or who is behind in a campaign (expectation’s game) rather than the substance of the issues; emphasis no reporting of poll results or outcomes of primaries.
Term
sound bites
Definition
: the short (15 seconds or less) time given in the media (TV/radio) to candidate’s talking rather than their actual speeches; usually results in candidate’s creating short phrases to communicate their messages – “compassionate conservative” – “read my lips, no more taxes”
Term
political party
Definition
a team of men and women seeking to control government through the winning of elections; American political parties are very fragmented and decentralized thus the team part of the definition is somewhat misleading as party members do not always agree on the issues.
Term
ticket splitting
Definition
voting for candidates of different parties on the same ballot; opposite of straight ticket voting in which a voter votes only for members of one party; the trend in American politics is toward increased ticket splitting – voting for a President of one party and a congressman or Senator of another party.
Term
closed primary
Definition
a party nominating election in which voters may decide on election day which party’s election they will participate in to select the party’s nominees for office. In presidential primaries, the election is used as part of the process to determine pledged delegates to the party’s national convention.
Term
open primary
Definition
: a party nominating election in which only registered party members may participate in the voting; encourages party loyalty; In presidential primaries, the election is used as part of the process to determine pledged delegates to the party’s national convention.
Term
party caucus
Definition
a party meeting used for the purpose of nominating the party’s candidates for office; in presidential elections, the process is used to determine a state’s delegates to the national convention.
Term
national convention
Definition
convention held by the major political parties every four years for the official purpose of nominating the party’s presidential and vice presidential candidates and establishing the party platform; in recent years, the nominees are typically determined in advance in the primaries and caucuses that precede the convention, and the event is a staged media event to make the nomination official.
Term
critical election
Definition
a presidential election that ushers in a new party era (era of dominance by one major party) due to a relatively permanent (long term) realignment of the electorate; usually associated with a major event or crisis; relatively rare in American history.
Term
party realignment
Definition
change in voter coalitions (groups of voters that support a party) that results in a change in a party’s base of voters --- usually associated with a critical election.
Term
New Deal Coalition
Definition
the Democratic party coalition that formed in the critical election of 1932 and included white southerners, laborers (unions), urban intellectuals, and minorities.
Term
party dealignment
Definition
a movement away from parties and toward increased independence that has been a frequent election trend since the 1960s. Instead of voter groups switching allegiance from one party to another (realignment); voter groups have become more independent resulting in more split-ticket voting and contributing to divided government.
Term
divided government
Definition
one party controls the Presidency and the other party controls the Congress; a frequent election pattern since the 1960s.
Term
winner-take-all system
Definition
system in which the candidate who gets the most votes wins the election; typically applies to the method in 48 states of the presidential candidate who wins the state’s popular vote gets all of his party’s electors elected; through party loyalty that typically ensures that he will receive all the state’s electoral votes.
Term
candidate-centered campaigns
Definition
a campaign trend since the 1960s in which the focus is on the candidate rather than the party; candidates raise their own funds, hire their own campaign consultants, and run their own campaigns; this is a change from the past when political parties raised the funds and ran the campaigns; candidate-centered campaigns decreases party loyalty of officeholders.
Term
McGovern-Fraser Commission
Definition
a commission formed in 1968 in response to demands for reform in the delegate selection process of the Democratic party; the commission reforms of the party convention resulted in equal numbers of men and women selected as delegates and greater representation for minorities.
Term
frontloading
Definition
the current trend of states moving their presidential primary or caucus to the beginning of the campaign season to ensure a say in the nomination process; this has resulted in the presidential nomination becoming a “done deal” typically by the first week in March due to a candidate earning a majority of “pledged” delegates earlier in the season than in the past.
Term
soft money
Definition
unregulated (not subject to contribution limits) money donated to political parties to support party building efforts (voter registration drives, get out the vote drives, generic party advertising, etc., ) at the local (grassroots) level; became a loophole for large sums of money to be donated to the parties that directly or indirectly supported the party’s presidential candidate, thus skirting the existing campaign laws; banned by McCain-Feingold bill in 2003.
Term
hard money
Definition
regulated money given to federal candidates and parties by individuals and groups subject to disclosure laws and contribution limits under the FECA of 1974.
Term
political action committees
Definition
political action committees; the financial arms of special interest groups formed to raise and channel campaign funds to favored candidates in federal elections.
Term
political efficacy
Definition
the belief that one’s vote counts – makes a difference in the political process; people with a high sense of political efficacy are more likely to vote; low sense of political efficacy – less likely to vote.
Term
electors
Definition
individuals selected by a state (usually winner-take-all) to cast a state’s electoral votes for president in December after then popular vote in November; members of the electoral college who cast the votes that actually elect the president.
Term
interest group
Definition
an organization of people with shared policy goals (like-minded) entering the policy process at several points to try to achieve those goals; focus of interest groups is to obtain public policies favorable to their specified interests.
Term
iron triangles
Definition
a subgovernment or network consisting of a special interest group, committee of Congress handling the policy interest, and a bureaucratic agency that administers the policy; all work together to achieve policies favorable to their shared interest; in the past, these subgovernments were able to exert great influence in their policy area.
Term
lobbying
Definition
communication, by someone other than a citizen acting on his own behalf, directed to a governmental decisionmaker with the hope of influencing the decision; efforts exerted by special interest groups such as testifying at committee hearings, contacting government officials, etc., to influence policy decisionmaking.
Term
litigation
Definition
filing a lawsuit; used by special interest groups to seek to obtain court decisions favorable to their policy interest.
Term
amicus curiae briefs
Definition
written arguments submitted to the court by groups or individuals other than the parties to a case; a means by which special interest groups seek to influence court decisions favorable to their policy interests.
Term
bicameralism
Definition
means two houses – the House of Representatives and the Senate
Term
casework
Definition
assistance to an individual constituent by a Congressman (or more likely his staff) in dealing with a problem the individual has with a bureaucratic agency or some part of government; typically enhances the reelection chances of incumbents.
Term
pork barrel legislation
Definition
laws that provide funding for projects (highways, public buildings, research grants, etc.) in states and local areas; typically enhances an incumbent congressman or senator’s chances of reelection for “bringing home the bacon” to his state or district; also called earmarks – money set aside in an appropriation bill for the state or local district.
Term
franking privilege
Definition
free use of the mail by members of Congress for official business at taxpayers’ expense; sometimes used to send credit-claiming newsletters to constituents.
Term
incumbents
Definition
the current or existing officeholder; incumbents in Congress usually win reelection.
Term
presidential coattails
Definition
occurs when voters cast their ballots for congressional candidates of the President’s party because they support the president; trend: short.
Term
House Rules Committee
Definition
committee in the House of Representatives that sets the rules of debate and determines the legislative calendar; powerful committee i the House only where debate is limited by these rules.
Term
filibuster
Definition
"talking a bill to death"- occurs only in the Senate and is used by a minority to stall a vote to kill a bill; usually successful at the end of a session
Term
cloture
Definition
a procedural vote in the Senate to end a debate (a filibuster) and proceed with a vote; requires a supermajority of 60 senatory (3/5ths)
Term
standing committee
Definition
permanent subject matter committees of the House and the Senate that deal with legislation related to their subject; where most of the work of Congress takes place.
Term
conference committee
Definition
a temporary committee of members of both the House and Senate created to iron out (reconcile) differences between House and Senate versions of a bill.
Term
legislative oversight
Definition
a legislative check on the executive branch/bureaucracy; involves congressional committees seeking information and testimony at hearings to determine if the executive branch agencies, etc., are enforcing the law (programs and policies) and spending funds as intended by Congress
Term
Ways and Menas Committee
Definition
tax committee in the House of Representatives; because all bills for raising revenue must originate in the House, this is a powerful committee in the House
Term
impeach
Definition
to accuse; the power to impeach a president of federal judge is held by the House of Representatives. It does not mean to remove from office which can only occur if the Senate tries the official on the impeachment charges and botes to remove them by a 2/3rds vote.
Term
imperial Congress viewpoint
Definition
view that congressional attempts to reassert its authority placed too many limits on presidential power and upset the balance of power; tupically associated with the 1970s and 1980s
Term
imperial presidency viewpoint
Definition
view that presidential power has increased too much relative t oother branches and is subject to too few checks; view of the 1960s and 1970s of presidential abuse of power during Vietnam and Watergate.
Term
cabinet
Definition
informal advisory body to presidents consisting of the heads of the cabinet departments and others the president chooses; has less influence todya than in the past due to centralization of authority in the White House staff and divided loyalties of cabinet members.
Term
white house staff
Definition
the president's closest aides and advisors; the most loyal group to the president in the executive branch; area of freat influence due t ocentralization of power in recent years
Term
War Powers Resolution
Definition
1973 act in which congress attempted to reassert its authority in war-making by limiting the president's ability to deploy troops to 60-90 days (unless Congress aprobes otherwise) and requiring that Congress be informed of a troop deployment within 48 hours.
Term
rally event
Definition
an emergency or crisis event that causes a sudden, but usually temporary, apike in presidential approval ratings as the nation gives its support initially to the President in dealing with the crisis.
Term
veto
Definition
occurs when the president refuses to sign a bill and returns it to Congress (starting with the house where it originated) with his stated objections
Term
pocket veto
Definition
occurs when the President refuses to sign a bill and congress adjourns within 10 working days of sending the bill to the President; the bill dies.
Term
line item veto
Definition
the power to veto parts of a bill and sign the remainder into law; presidents DO NOT have this power that most state govenor's do have.
Term
deficit
Definition
when gov. revenues (taxes) fall short of gov. expenditures (spending) in a given year; since the 1930s, with few exceptions after the 1960s, the national government typically runs a deficit in its budget
Term
federal debt
Definition
the accumulated deficits of the national gov. over time; all the money borrowed by the federal gov. over the years and still outstanding
Term
entitlements
Definition
mandatory spending; policies for which Congress has obligated itself to provide benefits to certain individuals becuase they meet the qualifications of the law; ex. Social Securtity, Medicare, verteran's benefits, etc.; spending that is considered uncontrollable because the obligation is to anyone who meets teh qualifications.
Term
Mandatory/nondiscretionary expenditures
Definition
spending that Congress is obligated to make (has no choice due to previous commitments) including interest on the national debt and entitlement programs.
Term
continuing resolutions
Definition
Congressional resolutions that allow agencies to ocntinue to spend at the level of the prvents a shutdown of government operations
Term
political appointees
Definition
bureacrats who head the various agencies, departments and commissions of the executive branch (bureaucracy) who are appointed by the President who appointed them
Term
career civil servants
Definition
the bureaubrats who get their jobs based o nmerit (civil service exam); typically the mid to lower level bureaucrats who actually carry out the programs and policies of government.
Term
executive order
Definition
rule or regulation issued by the President (or executive branch) that has the force of law.
Term
executive privilege
Definition
claim of presidents that they have the power to withhold information fro mte hCongress or the Courts o nthe basis of separation of powers; in U.S. v. Nixon, the Supreme Court stated that presidents do not have an "unqualified" claim to executive privilege.
Term
case or controversy rule
Definition
practice of the courts not issuing an opinion unless there is an actual case or controversy before them; the Supreme Court, therefore, does not issue advisory opinions or opinions in hypothetical cases. Limits the influence of the Court to only cases it actually hears.
Term
original jurisdiction
Definition
the right of a court to hear a case for the firs time-before any other ocurt. The original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is se5 by the Constition
Term
appellate jurisdiction
Definition
the right of a court to hear acase on appeal (on review) from a lower court. The original jurisdicton of the Supreme Court can be changed by Congress, but it is rarely done.
Term
impoundment
Definition
presidential refusal to expend funds appropriated by Congress
Term
judicial activism
Definition
when judges use their ability to interpret the law to override legislation or decisions of the other policy-making branches and ,thus, make policy through their decisions
Term
judicial self-restraint
Definition
when judges seek to avoid overturning decisions made by the other branches of governmetn unless the Consitution directly forbids the action; therefore, reducing the policymaking role of the judges
Term
rule of four
Definition
requirement that four justices must agree before the Supreme Court will accept a case for review.
Term
senatorial courtesy
Definition
an unwritten tradition whereby nominations for state-level federal judicial posts are not confirmed if they are opposed by a senator from the state in which the nominee will serve
Term
writ of certiorari
Definition
a document that expresses a decision by the Supreme Court to call up a case for review from a lower court; the tyupical means by which a case reaches the Supreme Court on appeal from a lower court.
Term
stare decisis
Definition
the practice of judges following precedent in a case
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