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| the systematic noting and recording of events; a principal tool of the scientific method |
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| an aspect of good thinking, stating that the simplest explanation is preferred until ruled out by conflicting evidence; also known as Occam's razor |
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steps scientists take to gather and verify information, answer questions, explain relationships, and communicate findings.
can never be sure if the results are actually proving your hypothesis; it could have come from something else |
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to challenge an existing explanation or theory by testing a hypothesis that follows logically from it and demonstrating that this hypothesis is false
Popper |
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| research that is based on evidence |
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| ask what the circumstances are that cause a particular situation to occur |
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| ask what is the driving force of the situation that is occurring |
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| base our theories on as little of these as possible |
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| regression keep questioning further until everything makes sense |
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| knowledge is gained through personal observation |
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| Non-scientific impacts of our thought process |
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Religion
Empericism
Tenacity
Authority
Practical ramifications |
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| if a theory works, don't change it |
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| if a theory would be practical, it is correct |
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| create general principle from specific observations to form a hypothesis |
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| apply to specific instances from general principles to form a hypothesis |
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| hypothetic deductive reasoning |
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| reasoning after testing a theory |
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| Inductive and deductive reasoning can't bring us to an absolutely accurate hypothesis. they can only bring us to this. |
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| principle of operational definitions |
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all experiments must work with definitions that are concrete, observational, and measurable
makes the experiment replicatable |
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| categories of operational definitions |
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behavioral
self-report
physiological |
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| types of physiological response |
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relaxation
fight or flight |
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parasympathtic arousal
ex: decreased heartrate |
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sympathetic arousal
ex: increased heartrate |
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| approaches to defining emotions |
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Conan Bard Theory
James Lang Theory |
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| our observable behavior are windows into our true emotions |
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our behaviors are our emotions
it is therefore okay to use observable behaviors to measure an emotion |
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| principle of controlled observation |
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| all experiments must isolate the desired variables so that there are no confounding variables |
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the factor that affects
x-factor |
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the factor that is affected
y-factor |
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| groups needed for an experiment |
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at least two
experimental group
comparison group or control group |
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z-factor
additional factor that affects the dependent variable other than the intended independent variable |
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people are assigned to groups randomly
a probabilistic tool that allows for generalization from the sample to the larger population |
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to what extent a contained experiment be generalized to the larger population
maximized by random selection
minimized by reducing factors that are tested |
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to what extent the independent variables in an experiment are truly isolated
maximized by more shared factors between groups
minimized by confounding factors |
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| principle of repeated observation |
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an experiment must produce the same results if repeated
do not need to actually do the repeat |
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| with it the effect will occur and without it the effect cannot occur |
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| with it the effect will occur but it is not needed to occur |
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manipulated variable
variable that the researcher creates |
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subject variable
variable that can't be manipulated but effects the outcome of the experiment |
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| randomly assigns participants to two groups and each group tests a condition |
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| all subjects test every condition |
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| using different factors to come to the same conclusion |
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| the experiment tests what it is supposed to test |
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| clearly tests what it is supposed to |
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| measures just what is intended to be measured |
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| predicts what it is testing for |
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| getting the same results with another test intended to test the same thing |
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| preduces the same results every time |
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| different scorers must give the same scores |
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| all test items test the same thing |
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| always get the same results when retaking the test |
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| can prove that two things are connected but not a causal relationship |
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| sample is chosen at random |
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| using numbers as part of the operational definition |
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| each number represents a name but no quantifiable value |
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| only the order of the numbers matter |
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| precise differences between each number |
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| intervals matter and there's an absolute zero |
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| randomized two group design |
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| one group per condition, randomly assigned to two groups |
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| randomized one group design |
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one group tests more than one condition
will have an order effect |
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| the order in which participants recieve conditions may have an impact |
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the condition was already present in the participants before the experiment
only correlational, no causation can be determined |
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| means will be slightly but insignificantly different each time you randomly assign that group because its not actually the same people, only the same population. |
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difference in means between tests was significant and therefore was caused by the independent variable.
T>.05
P<.05 |
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the difference between means between tests is due only to sampling error
T<.05
P>.05 |
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used to compare means
for a between subjects design |
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used to compare means
for a within subjects design |
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| all circumstances that occur or exist before the event or behavior to be explained |
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| research that is designed to solve real-world problems. |
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| research designed to test theories or to expxlain psychological phenomena |
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| cause and affect relationship |
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| the relation between a particular behavior and a set of antecedents that always precedes it so that the set is inferred to cause the behavior |
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| everyday, nonscientific collection of psychological data used to understand the social world and guide our behavior |
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| facts and figures gathered from observations in research |
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| the process undertaken to demonstrate that particular behavioral events will occur reliably in certain specifiable conditions; a principal tool of the scientific method |
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| organized and rational thought, characterized by open-mindedness, objectivity, and parsimony; a principal tool of the scientific method |
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| general scientific principles that explain our universe and predict events |
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| the systematic estimation fo the quantity, size, or quality of an observable event; a principal tool of the scientific method |
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| the scientific techniqes used to collect and evaluate psychological data |
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| a controlled procedure in which at least two different treatment conditions are then measured and compared to test a hypothesis about the effects of the treatments on behavior |
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| the process of repeating research procedures to verify that the outcome will be the same as before; a principal of the scientific method |
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| the systematic gathering of data to provide descriptions of events taking place under specific conditions, enabling researchers to explain, predict, and control events |
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| a set of general principles that attempts to explain and predict behavior or other phenomena |
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| the scientific term for an individual who participates in research |
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capable of being tested; typcially used in reference to a hypothesis.
procedures for manipulating the setting must exist, and the predicted outcome must be observable. |
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| a specific set of antecedent conditions created by the experimenter and presented to subjects to test its effect on behavior |
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