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Definition
| The concept that all sensate species that feel pain are of equal value and have rights. |
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Definition
| The humane care and treatment of animals. |
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Definition
| The likelihood of a subject being harmed in some way because of the nature of the research. |
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| The principle of full disclosure at the end of an experiment; that is, explaining to the subject the nature and purpose of the study. |
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| The unethical practice of falsifying or fabricating data; plagiarism is also a form of fraud. |
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Definition
| A subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in a research project after the nature and purpose of the study have been explained. |
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| Institutional animal care and use committee (IACUC) |
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Definition
| An institutional committee that reviews proposed research to safeguard the welfare of animal subjects. |
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| Institutional review board (IRB) |
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Definition
| An institutional committee that reviews proposed research to safeguard the safety and rights of human participants. |
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Definition
| The subject’s odds of being harmed are not increased by the research. |
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| The representation of someone else’s ideas, words, or written work as one’s own; a serious breach of ethics that can result in legal action. |
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| A determination, made by an IRB, that any risks to the individual are outweighed by potential benefits or the importance of the knowledge to be gained. |
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Definition
| A descriptive method in which already existing records are reexamined for a new purpose. |
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| The descriptive record of an individual’s experiences, behaviors, or both kept by an outside observer. |
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| A form of case study in which deviant individuals are compared with those who are not to identify the significant differences between them. |
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| Contemporary phenomenology that relies on the researcher’s own experiences, experiential data provided by study participants, or other available sources such as literature or popular media; a qualitative approach. |
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Definition
| How well the findings of an experiment generalize or apply to people and settings that were not tested directly. |
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Definition
| A nonexperimental research method used in the field or in a real-life setting, typically employing a variety of techniques, including naturalistic observation and unobtrusive measures or survey tools, such as questionnaires and interviews. |
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Definition
| A type of group interview; it is an organized discussion session with a small group of people, usually led by a trained facilitator. |
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| The certainty that the changes in behavior observed across treatment conditions were actually caused by differences in treatments. |
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Definition
| A descriptive, nonexperimental method of observing behaviors as they occur spontaneously in natural settings. |
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| The set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and procedures that are generally accepted within a particular discipline at a certain point in time. |
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| Participant-observer study |
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Definition
| A special kind of field observation in which the researcher actually becomes part of the group being studied. |
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Definition
| `A nonexperimental method of gathering data by attending to and describing one’s own immediate experience. |
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Definition
| Research that relies on words rather than numbers for the data being collected; it focuses on self-reports, personal narratives, and expression of ideas, memories, feelings, and thoughts. |
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Definition
| The tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or responses when they are aware of the presence of an observer. |
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Definition
| Data collected in the present based on recollections of past events; apt to be inaccurate because of faulty memory, bias, mood, and situation. |
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Definition
| A system for recording observations; each observation is recorded using specific rules or guidelines, so observations are more objective. |
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Definition
| A procedure used to assess subjects’ behaviors without their knowledge; used to obtain more objective data. |
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Definition
| A form of probability sampling in which a researcher samples entire clusters, or naturally occurring groups, that exist within the population. |
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Definition
| A system for quantifying responses to open-ended questions by categorizing them according to objective rules or guidelines. |
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Definition
| Effects produced by the position of a question; where it falls within the question order can influence how the question is interpreted. |
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Definition
| The concept that traits, attitudes, and preferences can be viewed as a continuous dimension, and each individual can fall at any point along each dimension; for example, sociability can be viewed as a continuous dimension ranging from very unsociable to very sociable. |
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Definition
| A convenience sample is obtained by using any groups who happen to be convenient; considered a weak form of sampling because the researcher exercises no control over the representativeness of the sample (also called accidental sampling). |
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Definition
| The measurement of magnitude, or quantitative size, having equal intervals between values but no true zero point. |
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Definition
| The “hidden meaning” behind a question. |
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Definition
| The type of scale of measurement—ratio, interval, ordinal, or nominal—used to measure a variable. |
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Definition
| The plain meaning of the words or questions that actually appear on the page. |
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Definition
| People who are apt to disagree with a question regardless of its manifest content. |
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Definition
| The simplest level of measurement; classifies items into two or more distinct categories on the basis of some common feature. |
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Definition
| Sampling procedures in which subjects are not chosen at random; two common examples are quota and convenience samples. |
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Definition
| A measure of magnitude in which each value is measured in the form of ranks. |
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Definition
| All people, animals, or objects that have at least one characteristic in common. |
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Definition
| When in doubt about answers to multiple-choice questions, some people always select a response in a certain position, such as answer c. |
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Definition
| Selecting samples in such a way that the odds of any subject being selected for the study are known or can be calculated. |
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Definition
| The selection of nonrandom samples that reflect a specific purpose of the study. |
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Definition
| Selecting samples through predetermined quotas that are intended to reflect the makeup of the population; they can reflect the proportions of important population subgroups, but the particular individuals are not selected at random. |
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Definition
| A table of numbers generated by a computer so that every number has an equal chance of being selected for each position in the table. |
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Term
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Definition
| An unbiased method for selecting subjects in such a way that each member of the population has an equal opportunity to be selected, and the outcome cannot be predicted ahead of time by any known law. |
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Definition
| A measure of magnitude having equal intervals between values and having an absolute zero point. |
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Definition
| The extent to which a survey is consistent and repeatable. |
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Definition
| The extent to which the sample responses we observe and measure reflect those we would obtain if we could sample the entire population. |
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Definition
| A tendency to answer questions based on their latent content with the goal of creating a certain impression of ourselves. |
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Term
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Definition
| Tendency for subjects to respond to questions or test items in a specific way, regardless of the content. |
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Definition
| A selected subset of the population of interest. |
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Definition
| Deciding who the subjects will be and selecting them. |
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Definition
| The most basic form of probability sampling whereby a portion of the whole population is selected in an unbiased way. |
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Term
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Definition
| A form of nonprobability sampling in which a researcher locates one or a few people who fit the sample criterion and asks these people to locate or lead the researcher to additional individuals who fit the criterion. |
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Term
| Stratified random sampling |
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Definition
| A form of probability sample obtained by randomly sampling from people in each important population subgroup in the same proportion as they exist in the population. |
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Term
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Definition
| A useful way of obtaining data about people’s opinions, attitudes, preferences, and experiences that are hard to observe directly; data may be obtained using questionnaires or interviews. |
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Term
| Systematic random sampling |
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Definition
| A variation of random sampling in which a researcher selects every nth person from the population. |
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Definition
| The extent to which a survey actually measures the intended topic and not something else. |
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Definition
| The differences among people in their style of responding to questions they are unsure about; some people will leave these questions blank, whereas others will take a guess. |
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Definition
| People who are apt to agree with a question regardless of its manifest content. |
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Definition
| Creating and testing models that may suggest cause-and-effect relationships among behaviors. |
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Term
| Coefficient of determination |
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Definition
| In a correlational study, an estimate of the amount of variability in scores on one variable that can be explained by the other variable. |
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Definition
| The degree of relationship between two traits, behaviors, or events, represented by r. |
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Definition
| A study designed to determine the correlation between two traits, behaviors, or events. |
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Term
| Cross-lagged panel design |
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Definition
| A method in which the same set of behaviors or characteristics are measured at two separate points in time (often years apart); six different correlations are computed, and the pattern of correlations is used to infer the causal direction. |
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Definition
| A method in which different groups of subjects who are at different stages are measured at a single point in time; a method that looks for time-related changes. |
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Term
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Definition
| A study in which a researcher systematically examines the effects of pre-existing subject characteristics (often called subject variables) by forming groups based on these naturally occurring differences between subjects. |
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Term
| Linear regression analysis |
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Definition
| A correlation-based method for estimating a score on one measured behavior from a score on the other when two behaviors are strongly related. |
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Term
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Definition
| A method in which the same group of subjects is followed and measured at different points in time; a method that looks for changes across time. |
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Term
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Definition
| Statistical intercorrelations among three or more behaviors, represented by R. |
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Term
| Multiple regression analysis |
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Definition
| A correlation-based technique (from multiple correlation) that uses a regression equation to predict the score on one behavior from scores on the other related behaviors. |
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Term
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Definition
| The relationship existing between two variables such that an increase in one is associated with a decrease in the other; also called an inverse relationship. |
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| Nonequivalent groups design |
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Definition
| A design in which the researcher compares the effects of different treatment conditions on preexisting groups of participants. |
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Term
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Definition
| An analysis that allows the statistical influence of one measured variable to be held constant while computing the correlation between the other two measured variables. |
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Definition
| An important correlation-based method in which subjects are measured on several related behaviors; the researcher creates (and tests) models of possible causal sequences using sophisticated correlational techniques. |
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Term
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Definition
| The relationship between two measures such that an increase in the value of one is associated with an increase in the value of the other; also called a direct relationship. |
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Term
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Definition
| A research design used to assess whether the occurrence of an event alters behavior; scores from measurements made before and after the event (called the pretest and posttest) are compared. |
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Term
| Quasi-experimental designs |
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Definition
| Often seem like (as the prefix quasi- implies) real experiments, but they lack one or more of its essential elements, such as manipulation of antecedents and random assignment to treatment conditions. |
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Term
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Definition
| The line of best fit; represents the equation that best describes the mathematical relationship between two variables measured in a correlational study. |
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Term
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Definition
| A graph of data from a correlational study, created by plotting pairs of scores from each subject; the value of one variable is plotted on the X (horizontal) axis and the other variable on the Y (vertical) axis. |
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Term
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Definition
| Relationships between pairs of scores from each subject. |
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Term
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Definition
| The characteristics of the subjects in an experiment or quasi-experiment that cannot be manipulated by the researcher; sometimes used to select subjects into groups. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which different subjects take part in each condition of the experiment. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process of randomization that first creates treatment blocks containing one random order of the conditions in the experiment; subjects are then assigned to fill each successive treatment block. |
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Term
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Definition
| A condition in which subjects receive a zero value of the independent variable. |
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Definition
| The subjects in a control condition. |
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Definition
| A statistical estimate of the size or magnitude of the treatment effect(s). |
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Term
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Definition
| A treatment condition in which the researcher applies a particular value of an independent variable to subjects and then measures the dependent variable; in an experimental group–control group design, the group that receives some value of the independent variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| The general structure of an experiment (but not its specific content). |
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Definition
| The subjects in an experimental condition. |
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Term
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Definition
| A between-subjects design with one independent variable, in which there are more than two treatment conditions. |
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Term
| Multiple-independent-groups design |
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Definition
| The most commonly used multiple-groups design in which the subjects are assigned to the different treatment conditions at random. |
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Term
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Definition
| A mini-experiment using only a few subjects to pretest selected levels of an independent variable before conducting the actual experiment. |
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Definition
| In drug testing, a control condition in which subjects are treated exactly the same as subjects who are in the experimental group, except for the presence of the actual drug; the prototype of a good control group. |
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Term
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Definition
| Creating pairs whose subjects have identical scores on the matching variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| The technique of assigning subjects to treatments so that each subject has an equal chance of being assigned to each treatment condition. |
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Term
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Definition
| Creating pairs of subjects whose scores on the matching variable fall within a previously specified range of scores. |
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Term
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Definition
| Creating matched pairs by placing subjects in order of their scores on the matching variable; subjects with adjacent scores become pairs. |
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Term
| Two-experimental-groups design |
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Definition
| A design in which two groups of subjects are exposed to different levels of the independent variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| The simplest experimental design, used when only two treatment conditions are needed. |
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Term
| Two-independent-groups design |
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Definition
| An experimental design in which subjects are placed in each of two treatment conditions through random assignment. |
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Term
| Two-matched-groups design |
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Definition
| An experimental design with two treatment conditions and with subjects who are matched on a subject variable thought to be highly related to the dependent variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| An independent variable in a factorial design. |
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Term
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Definition
| An experimental design in which more than one independent variable is manipulated. |
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Term
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Definition
| An interaction effect involving more than two independent variables. |
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Term
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Definition
| The effect of one independent variable changes across the levels of another independent variable; can only be detected in factorial designs. |
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Term
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Definition
| The action of a single independent variable in an experiment; the change in the dependent variable produced by the various levels of a single factor. |
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Term
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Definition
| A system that uses numbers to describe the design of a factorial experiment. |
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Term
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Definition
| The simplest factorial design, having two independent variables. |
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Term
| Across-subjects counterbalancing |
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Definition
| A technique for controlling progressive error that pools all subjects’ data together to equalize the effects of progressive error for each condition. |
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Term
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Definition
| A partial counterbalancing technique for constructing a matrix, or square, of sequences in which each treatment condition (1) appears only once in each position in a sequence and (2) precedes and follows every other condition an equal number of times. |
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Term
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Definition
| A process of randomization that first creates treatment blocks containing one random order of the conditions in the experiment; subjects are then assigned to fill each successive treatment block. |
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Term
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Definition
| The persistence of the effect of a treatment condition after the condition ends. |
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Term
| Complete counterbalancing |
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Definition
| A technique for controlling progressive error using all possible sequences that can be formed out of the treatment conditions and using each sequence the same number of times. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique for controlling order effects by distributing progressive error across the different treatment conditions of the experiment; may also control carryover effects. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes in performance caused by fatigue, boredom, or irritation. |
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Term
| Latin square counterbalancing |
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Definition
| A partial counterbalancing technique in which a matrix, or square, of sequences is constructed so that each treatment appears only once in any order position. |
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Term
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Definition
| A factorial design that combines within-subjects and between-subjects factors. |
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Term
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Definition
| Change in subjects’ performance that occurs when a condition falls in different positions in a sequence of treatments. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique for controlling progressive error by using some subset of the available sequences of treatment conditions. |
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Definition
| The chance of detecting a genuine effect of the independent variable. |
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Definition
| Change in subjects’ performance resulting from practice. |
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Term
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Definition
| Changes in subjects’ responses that are caused by testing in multiple treatment conditions; includes order effects, such as the effects of practice or fatigue. |
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Term
| Randomized partial counterbalancing |
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Definition
| The simplest partial counterbalancing procedure in which the experimenter randomly selects as many sequences of treatment conditions as there are subjects for the experiment. |
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Term
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Definition
| A technique for controlling progressive error for each individual subject by presenting all treatment conditions twice, first in one order, then in the reverse order. |
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Term
| Subject-by-subject counterbalancing |
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Definition
| A technique for controlling progressive error for each individual subject by presenting all treatment conditions more than once. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which each subject takes part in more than one condition of the experiment; also called a repeated-measures design. |
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Term
| Within-subjects factorial design |
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Definition
| A factorial design in which subjects receive all conditions in the experiment. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which a baseline condition (A) is measured first, followed by measurements during the experimental intervention (B); there is no return to the baseline condition. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which a baseline condition (A) is measured first, followed by measurements during the experimental condition (B), followed by a return to the baseline condition (A) to verify that the change in behavior is linked to the experimental condition; also called a reversal design. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which a baseline condition (A) is measured first, followed by measurements during a treatment condition (B), followed by a return to the baseline condition (A) to verify that the change in behavior is linked to the experimental condition, followed by a return to the treatment condition (B). |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which a baseline condition (A) is measured first, followed by measurements during a treatment condition (B), followed by a return to the baseline measurement condition (A), followed by a return to the treatment condition (B) and a final baseline measurement condition (A) to verify that the change in behavior is linked to the experimental condition. |
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Term
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Definition
| A measure of behavior as it normally occurs without the experimental manipulation; a control condition used to assess the impact of the experimental condition. |
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Term
| Changing criterion design |
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Definition
| A design used to modify behavior when the behavior cannot be changed all at once; instead, the behavior is modified in increments, and the criterion for success changes as the behavior is modified. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design that relies on presenting and averaging across many, many experimental trials; repeated applications result in a reliable picture of the effects of the independent variable. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which the behavior of groups of subjects is compared. |
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Term
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Definition
| A small N design in which a series of baselines and treatments are compared; once established, however, a treatment is not withdrawn. |
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Term
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Definition
| A design in which just one or a few subjects are used; typically, the experimenter collects baseline data during an initial control condition, applies the experimental treatment, then reinstates the original control condition to verify that changes observed in behavior were caused by the experimental intervention. |
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