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ExamI Research Design Clin Psy
based on Kazdin text (2003)
104
Psychology
Undergraduate 4
10/07/2008

Additional Psychology Flashcards

 


 

Cards

Term

 

 

 

 

Methodology

Definition

 

 

- the diverse principles, procedures, and practices that govern research

 

- a way of thinking

 

- alerts us to the issues that effect how we examine and interpret phenomena

Term

 

 

 

 

Research Design

Definition

 

 

 

 

The plan or arrangement used to examine the question of interest.

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Hypothesis

Definition

 

 

 

 

- educated guess about the results of a study based on the principal research question which identifies an IV and DV(s) and sometimes a directional correlation between the two

 

- "if-then" statement

 

- the "if" is the IV and the "then" is the resulting variable

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Q: If results are consistent with a hypothesis, has it been proven?

Definition

 

 

A: No, data can be taken as proof of a hypothesis only if no conceivable alternative hypothesis can account for the results or if the predicted relations would be obtained if and only if the hypothesis were true.

Term

 

 

 

 

Parsimony

Definition

 

 

 

 

Parsimony directs us to select the simplest version or account of the data among the alternatives that are available.

Term

 

 

 

 

Plausible rival hypotheses

Definition

 

 

 

 

An interpretation of the results of an investigation on the basis of some other influence than the one the investigator has studied or wishes to discuss.

Term

 

 

 

 

Plausible rival hypotheses vs. Parsimony

Definition

 

 

Parsimony: adopting the simpler of 2 or more explanations that account equally well for the data

 

...whereas...

 

Plausible rival hypotheses: seeks to ask whether there any other plausible interpretations we can make of the findings than one advanced by the study

Term

 

 

 

 

Q: What is the role of methodology in addressing whether plausible rival hypotheses are relevant to interpretation of data?

Definition

 

 

 

 

A: Methodological practices are intended to rule out or to make implausible competing interpretations of the results.

 

 

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Study's findings vs. conclusions

Definition

 

 

 

 

Findings refer to the results that are obtained

 

...whereas...

 

Conclusions refer to the explanation of the basis of the finding

Term

 

 

 

 

Q: What does Kazdin mean by saying that the goal of research is to make convincing hypotheses?

Definition

 

 

A: Convincing relates to the quality of the research design and those features that permit sound inferences to be drawn.

 

A well-designed study is persuasive to the investigator as well as to others in the scientific community.

Term

 

 

 

 

Operational definition

Definition

 

 

 

 

Refers to defining a concept on the basis of the specific operations used in the experiment.

Term

 

 

 

 

 

3 limitations to operational definitions...

Definition

 

 

(1) Operationalizing an abstract notion, may greatly simplify the concept of interest or focus only on part of that construct.

 

(2) An operational def. may include features tha are irrelevant or not central to the original concept.

 

(3) An operational def. pertains to the use of single measures to define a construct.

Term

 

 

 

Q: How is multiple operationism useful in representing constructs?

Definition

 

 

A:

 

- Researchers often wish to include many different constructs.

 

- For research it is usually better to examine multiple constructs and few measures.

Term

 

 

 

 

3 major types of variables used in psychological research...

Definition

 

 

(1) environmental or situational variables

 

(2) instructional variables

 

(3) subject or individual difference variables

Term

 

 

 

 

Environmental or situational variables

 

Definition

 

 

 

 

What is done to, with, or by the subjects. Providing qualitatively different conditions to the subjects.

 

ie.) Treatment vs. no treatment

OR

more treatment for some subjects and less for others

Term

 

 

 

 

Instructional variables

 

Definition

 

 

 

 

Variations in what the participants are told or lead to believe through verbal or written statements about the experiment and their participation.

Term

 

 

 

 

Subject or individual difference variables

 

Definition

 

 

 

 

Attributes or characteristics of individual subjects. Encompasses characteristics to which the subjects may be exposed (ie. environment, context, living conditions).

Term

 

 

 

 

3 major types of studies in psychology...

Definition

 

 

 

(1) True experiments

 

(2) Quasi-experiment

 

(3) Case-control designs

Term

 

 

 

 

 

True experiments

Definition

 

 

 

Consist of invetigations in which the arrangements permit maximum control over the IV or manipulation of interest.

 

ie.) assign subjects to different conditions randomly.

 

Strongest basis for drawing inferences.

Term

 

 

 

 

Quasi-experiment

 

Definition

 

 

 

Those designs in which the conditions of true experiments are approximated.

 

ie.) school intervention program to prevent drug abuse / teen pregnancy.

 

No random assignment and factors vary greatly over conditions.

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Case-control designs

 

Definition

 

 

 

 

Selects subjects who vary in the characteristics or experience of interest. (ie. differences between smokers and non-smokers OR males and females)

 

Comparison groups are important for drawing conclusions here.

Term

 

 

 

 

Laboratory vs. Applied research

Definition

 

 

 

Laboratory: Investigations conducted in a specific research setting (ie. psychology department, research space where sugjects are brought to engage in some lab procedure). Devoted to basic questions under highly-controlled conditions.

...whereas...

Applied: ie.) a clinic setting where patients are seen for treatment; Evaluate different types of treatment or different populations who have one type of problem vs. another.

Term

 

 

 

Analogue vs. Clinical research

Definition

 

Analogue: Non-clinical group. Carefully defined research question under well-controlled conditions. Research important for clinical applications (of particular treatments for example). Bears little resemblance to clinical work.

...whereas...

Clinical: Clinically diagnosed syndromes group. Psychotherapy research. ie.) studies of therapeutic processes under well-controlled conditions. Process in lab should closely resemble phenomenon in daily life

Term

 

 

 

 

Efficacy vs. Effectiveness research

Definition

Efficacy: Treatment outcomes obtained in controlled psychotherapy studies conducted under lab & quasi-lab conditions.

 

...whereas...

 

Effectiveness: Treatment outcomes obtained in clinic settings where usual control procedures are not implemented (pations seek Tx, many present with multiple clinical problems).

Term

 

 

 

 

Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal research

Definition

Cross-sectional: makes comparisons between groups at a given point in time (ie. behavior assessed concurrently by evaluating children of different ages).

 

...whereas...

 

Longitudinal: makes comparisons over an extended period, often involving several years (ie. how behaviors change in a given sample over time).

Term

 

 

 

 

Generating vs. Testing hypotheses

Definition

 ????

 

Studies can sometimes do both:

 

~A study may test a hypothesis, but the data is gathered and used to extend the description of the phenomenon in ways that beg for further theory.

 

OR

 

~A study may begin with a careful description & end with a model or conceptual view that can be tested in subsequent studies.

Term

 

 

 

 

Internal Validity

Definition

 

 

- The extent to which an experiment rules out alternative explanations of the results.

 

- Internally valid when: the results can be attributed with little or no ambiguity to the effects of the IV (thing that someone actively changes).

Term

 

 

 

 

10 threats to internal validity

Definition

(1) H -History

(2) M - Maturation

(3) T - Testing

(4) I - Instrumentation

(5) R - Statistical Regression

(6) S - Selection biases

(7) A - Attrition

(8) C - Combination of selection & other threats

(9) D - Diffusion or imitation of treatment

(10) S - Special treatment or reactions of controls

Term

 

 

Internal threat: History

Definition

 

 

- Any event (besides the the IV) occurring in/outside the experiment that may account for results.

 

- Events common to all subjects in their everyday lives.

Term

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Maturation

Definition

 

 

 

 

 

Changes over time from processes within the subjects (id. growing older, stronger, more tired/bored).

Term

 

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Testing

Definition

 

 

 

 

Effects that taking a test one time may have on subsequent performance on the test (ie. practice & familiarity with the test).

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Instrumentation

Definition

 

 

 

Changes in the measuring instruments/measurement procedures over time.

 

(ie. In assessing behaviors, the scoring criteria that therapists use may change over time, leading to changes in the D.V. not caused by changes in actual behavior)

Term

 

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Statistical Regression

Definition

 

 

 

Tendency for extreme scores on any measure to revert (regress) toward the mean of a distribution when the measurement device is re-administered.

 

(ie. less extreme scores @ second testing)

Term

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Selection biases

Definition

 

 

Systematic differences between groups before any experimental manipulation/intervention on the basis of the selection or assignment of subjects to groups.

 

(Random assignment of subjects is used to lessen selection biases)

Term

 

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Attrition

Definition

 

 

Loss of subjects / dropping out.

 

(Usually when investigation spans days, weeks, months, years...).

Term

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Combination of selection and other threats

Definition

 

 

 

Influences affecting one group and not another.

 

(Most common: history and maturation)

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Diffusion or imitation of treatment

Definition

 

 

 

 

Equalization of performance of treatment and control groups due to accidental provision of treatment to control.

Term

 

 

 

 

Internal Validity: Special treatment or reactions of controls

Definition

 

 

 

Compensation for the control group (for not providing the intervention)--ie. special attention, more monitoring, special privileges--can act as an unintended intervention in its own right and cause control subjects to react differently.

Term

 

 

 

 

External Validity

Definition

 

 

 

The extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized beyond the conditions of the experiment to other populations, settings, and circumstances.

Term

 

 

 

 

8 threats to External Validity...

Definition
 
(1) S - Sample characteristics
(2) S - Stimulus characteristics & settings
(3) R - Reactivity of experimental arrangements
(4) M - Multiple treatment interference
(5) N - Novelty effects
(6) R - Reactivity of assessment (obtrusive / reactive)
(7) T - Test sensitization
(8) T -Timing of measurement
 
Term

 

 

 

External Validity: Sample characteristics

Definition

 

 

The extent to which results can be generalized to others who vary in age, race, ethnic background, education, etc.

 

(ie. animal research-->humans?

university students-->general public?)

Term

 

 

 

External Validity: Stimulus characteristics & settings

Definition

 

 

The extent to which results extend across the stimulus characteristics of the investigation.

 

 - features of study with which intervention or condition may be associated.

 

(ie. settings, experimentors, interviewers, other factors re. experimental arrangement)

Term

 

 

 

External Validity: Reactivity of experimental arrangements

Definition

 

 

 

Influence of subjects' awareness that they are being studied in an investigation.

Term

 

 

 

External Validity: Multiple treatment interference

Definition

 

 

 

Some experimental designs expose subjects to more than one experimental condition. Conclusions drawn about a treatment when it is evaluated in the context of other treatments.

Term

 

 

 

External Validity: Novelty effects

Definition

 

 

 

Possibility that the effects of an intervention may in part depend upon their innovativeness or novelty in the situation.

Term

 

 

 

 

External Validity: Reactivity of assessment

Definition

 

 

Any conditions of assessment that differ from those to which the investigator may wish to generalize.

 

- Obtrusive: if subjects are aware that their performance is being assessed.

 

- Reactive: if the awareness leads a person to respond differently from how they would usually.

Term

 

 

 

External Validity: Test sensitization

Definition

 

 

 

Pretests are sometimes given before treatment. The pretest may sensitize the subjects so they are affected differently by the invervention. Individuals may be more or less responsive to a treatment.

 

ie.) subjects' awareness of what investigator is looking for

Term

 

 

 

External Validity: Timing of measurement

Definition

 

 

 

Results may be dependent on the point in time at which assessment devices are administered.

Term

 

 

 

 

Q: Why is internal validity often considered more important than external validity?

Definition

 

 

A:

 

- must have an unambiguous finding before you can ask about its generality

 

- must have internal validity before you can have external validity

Term

 

 

 

 

Q: Why is external validity still important? (even though it's said that internal validity is generally more important)

Definition

 

 

A: Internal validity shows what can happen when an experiment is set up a certain way, but it does not show that the intervention would work outside of the experimental situation.

Term

 

 

 

 

10 steps to the research process...

Definition
(1) P - Delimit the Problem or area
(2) I - Delineate the specific Issues
(3) H - Outline Hypotheses
(4) O - Operationalize the DVs and IVs
(5) S -Adopt a research Strategy
(6) M - Maximization of the research effect
(7) D - Data collection
(8) S - Statistical testing
(9) I - Draw Inferences
(10) C - Communicate findings
 
Term

 

 

 

 

Steps to the research process: examples of Adopting a research strategy

 

 

Definition

 

 

 

 

ie. cross-sectional, longitudinal, etc.

Term

 

 

 

Steps to the research process: Maximization of the research effect-->3 components

Definition

 

(1) The logic of this can be illustrated by the F statistic:

F = systematic effects (due to IV) + error variance (confounding var's)

error variance (chance factors)

 

(2) Musti minimize varation due to unsystematic factors (error) and control for error due to confounding or extraneous variables.

 

(3) Minimizing error (eliminating threats...)

Term

 

 

 

Reliability

Definition

The extent to which the measures assess the characteristics of interest in a consistent fashion. In relation to measures, consistency may refer to internal consistency (how the items relate to each other), consistency between different parts or alternate forms of the same measure, and consistency in performance on the measure over time (test-retest reliability for a given group of subjects).

 

There are many different types of reliability.

Term

 

 

 

 

Deception

Definition

 

 

- Can be entirely misrepresenting the nature of the experiment

 

- being ambiguous and not specifying all or many important details

Term

 

 

 

 

Criteria to be met before deception is deemed acceptable

Definition

- Do possible risks (to individuals) outweigh potential benefits (to individuals/society)?

 

- Info to be revealed by experiment of high importance?

 

- Is deception essential to achieve the research goals? (special procedures to protect subjects are provided to reduce any lingering effects of the experience)

 

-  less deceptive or nondeceptive methods of investigation could not be used to obtain info?

 

- Low degree of deception and low potential for magnitude for harmful effects?

 

Term

 

 

 

 

Debriefing

Definition

 

 

Providing a description of the experiment and its purposes after the experiment is completed.

 

To reveal any deception and/or correct any deceptive information given in experiment.

Term

 

 

 

 Q: Why might debriefing fail to meet its intended purpose?

Definition

 

 

A:

- effectiveness depends on characteristics of the subject, nature of the deception, time interval between deception and debriefing

 

- does not erase false impressions established during the experiment

 

- effects of deception may linger after debriefing

Term

 

 

 

2 conditions which protect participants' rights to privacy...

Definition

 

 

(1) Anonymity

 

(2) Confidentiality

 

Term

 

 

 

Participants' rights to privacy: Anonymity

Definition

 

 

 

 

Ensuring the identity of subjects and their individual performance are not revealed.

Term

 

 

 

 

Participants' rights to privacy: Confidentiality

Definition

 

 

 

 

Information will not be disclosed to a 3rd party without the awareness and consent of the participant.

Term

 

 

 

 

3 major elements of Informed Consent...

Definition

(1) Competence: individual's ability to make well-reasoned decision and to give consent meaningfully.

 

(2) Knowledge: understanding the nature of the experiment, the alternatives available, and the potential risks and benefits.

 

(3) Volition: basis of agreeing to participate. Consent must be provided free from constraints or duress.

 

*Consent may be revoked at any time*

Term

 

 

 

Intervention research issues:

 

2 safeguards that researchers should put in place to protect their clients when conducting a treatment outcome study...

Definition

 

 

(1) When possible, a new treatment (or evidence-based treatment) should be compared with a standard treatment rather than to a placebo.

 

(2) Provide all subjects with the more (or most) effective treatment in the project after they have completed the treatment control condition to which they were assigned.

Term

 

 

 

Construct Validity

Definition

 

 

Interpreting the basis of the causal relationship demonstrated in an investigation.

 

 

Addresses the presumed cause or explanation of the causal relation between the intervention/experimental manipulation (IV) and the outcome (DV).

Term

 

 

 

4 threats to construct validity...

Definition

 

 

 

(1) A -Attention and contact with clients

(2) C - Cues of the experimental situation

(3) E - Experimentor expectancies

(4) S - Single operations and narrow stimulus sampling

 

Term

 

 

 

Construct Validity: Attention and contact with the clients

Definition

 

 

Different attention to clients along the experimental and control groups may be the basis for group differences and threaten the CV.

Term

 

 

 

 

Construct Validity: Cues of the experimental situation

Definition

 

 

 

Seemingly ancillary factors associated with the intervention that may contribute to the result.

 

-demand characteristics- sources of influence such as information conveyed to prospective subjects prior to their arrival to the experiment.

Term

 

 

 

Construct Validity: Experimentor expectancies

Definition

 

 

Possibility that the expectancies, beliefs, and desires about the results on the part of the experimentor influence how the subjects perform.

Term

 

 

 

 

Construct Validity: Single operations and narrow stimulus sampling

Definition

 

 

 

An experimental manipulation/intervention includes features that the investigator considers irrelevant to the study, but these features may introduce ambiguity in interpreting findings.

Term

 

 

 

Statistical Conclusion Validity

Definition

 

 

 

 

Refers to the facets of the quantitative evaluation that influence the conclusions we reach about the experimental condition and its effect.

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Null hypothesis

Definition

 

 

 

Specifies that there are no differences between groups.

 

Statistical tests are completed to evaluate whether the differences that are obtained are reliable or beyond what one is likely to find due to chance fluctuations.

Term

 

 

 

 

What is alpha?

α

Definition

 

 

 

The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when that null hypothesis is true.

 

(Incorrect decision) 

Term

 

 

 

 

What is beta?

β

Definition

 

 

 

The probability of accepting the null hypothesis when it is false.

 

(Incorrect decision)

Term

 

 

 

 

Type I Error

α

Definition

 

 

 

Incorrect decision

 

REJECT THE NULL----NULL IS TRUE

(Reject null hypothesis which is true)

 

a "miss"

 

ie.) Treatment does not work

 

Term

 

 

 

 

Power

1-β

Definition

 

 

Correct decision

 

REJECT THE NULL----NULL IS FALSE

(Reject null hypothesis which is false)

 

a "hit"

 

ie.) Treatment works (?)
Term

 

 

 

Type II Error

β

Definition

 

 

Incorrect decision

 

ACCEPT THE NULL---NULL IS FALSE

(Accept null hypothesis which is false)

 

a "miss"

 

ie.) inappropriate dismissal of treatment

 

 

Term

 

 

 

 

Last type of outcome (no name) in group differences  / null hypothesis table

Definition

 

Correct decision

 

ACCEPT THE NULL---NULL IS TRUE

(Accept null hypothesis which is true)

 

a "hit"

Term

 

 

 

 

Effect size

Definition

 

 

 

The magnitude of the difference between 2 or more conditions or groups and is expressed in standard deviation units.

Term

 

 

 

5 threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity...

Definition
 
 
(1) P - Low statistical Power
(2) V - Variability in procedures
(3) U - Unreliability of measures
(4) C - Multiple Comparisons and error rates
(5) H - Subject Heterogeneity
 
Term

 

 

 

 

Statistical Conclusion Validity: Low statistical power

 

Definition

 

 

 

The extent to which an investigation can detect differences between groups when differences exist within the population.

Term

 

 

 

 Statistical Conclusion Validity: Variability in the procedures

Definition

 

 

 

 

 Variation in relation to experimental setting, delivery of procedures, and homogeneity of the subjects.

 

 (may need to control for this potential threat)

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Statistical Conclusion Validity: Unreliability of the measures

 

Definition

 

 

 

The extent to which the measure assesses the characteristics of interest in a consistent fashion.

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Statistical Conclusion Validity: Multiple Comparisons and error rates

 

Definition

 

 

 

The more (statistical) tests that are performed, the more likely a chance difference will be found, even if there are no true differences between conditions. 

 

Term

 

 

 

 

Statistical Conclusion Validity: Subject Heterogeneity

Definition

 

 

 

Dimensions and characteristics along which subjects can vary (ie. gender, background, race and ethnicity, marital status).

 

These factors may influence outcome---there will be greater variability in the subjects' reactions to measures and to the intervention (decreases effect size).

Term

 

 

 

 

6 Sources of bias...

 

(problems with internal, construct, external validity)

Definition
(1) L - "Loose protocol effect"
(2) E - Experimentor expectancy effects
(3) C - Experimentor Characteristics
(4) S - Situational & contextual cues / Demand characteristics
(5) R - Subject Roles
(6) D - Data recording, analysis, and fabrication
 
Term

 

 

 

 

Sources of bias: "Loose protocol effect"

 

Definition

 

 

The failure to specify in detail the rationales, script, and activities of the experimentor.

 

 

- procedures should be explicit and standardized for the experimentor

- procedure can be recorded (audio/video) in advance

Term

 

 

 

 

Sources of bias: Experimentor expectancy effects


 

Definition

 

Influence of the experimentor's beliefs and desires about the results on how the subject performs. The effects are considered to be unintentional because the experimentor may not do anything on purpose to influence subjects' responses.

 

- keep experimentors naive/blind with respect to the purpose of the experiment and to evaluate the extent to which this is accomplished.

Term

 

 

 

 

Sources of bias: Experimentor characteristics

 

Definition

 

 

 

...such as age, race, gender, ethnicity, level of anxiety, friendliness, and prestige affect responses given by subjects on self-report and projective tests, measures of intelligence, and lab tasks.

 

- Useful for investigators to more carefully specify the characteristics of experimentors in their research reports.

Term

 

 

 

Sources of bias: Situational & contextual cues / Demand characteristics

 

Definition

 Cues in the experimental situation that may influence how subjects respond (ie. convincing therapist, coherent tx rationale, appearance of qualified and competent professional-->subjects expect change)

 

 Evaluating this effect:

- post-experimental inquiry: ask subjects about the purpose of the experiment and how they thought they were "supposed" to act

 

- preinquiry: subjects asked to imagine themselves in the experimental situation and then respond to measures

 

- simulators: subjects asked to act as if they receive the experimental condition to try and deceive naive experimenter

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Sources of bias: Subject roles

 

Definition

 

(artifact)

Subjects respond to cues in such a way as to give the experimentor what they want/don't want.

(Subjects become reactive to themselves as participants; behave in perceived "desired"/"undesired" way).

 

 

- inform subjects that there are no right/wrong answers, and their resonses are valuable no matter what.

 

Term

 

 

 

 

Sources of bias: Data recording, analysis, and fabrication

 

Definition

 

 

Errors calculating, computing, or fabricating the data. Errors tend to be in favor of the experimentor's hypotheses.

 

 

- individuals recording data should be uninformed of hypotheses

- when possible have subjects enter responses onto a computer

Term

 

 

 

 

2 Subject-selection biases...

Definition

 

 

(1) S- The Sample

(2) A - Attrition

Term

 

 

 

 

Subject-selection biases: The Sample

Definition

 

 

 

(Who was selected for the study)

Is it a sample of convenience? Is the range of subjects sampled restricted?

 

- structuring the situation so that the researcher fosters greater participation and serves a need or interest of the subjects is likely to increase # of volunteers

Term

 

 

 

 

Subject-selection biases: Attrition

Definition

 

 

(Who remains in the study)

 

Loss of subjects during the course of an investigation can effect all facets.

 

- interviews, mailings, reminders, and monetary rewards have been effective

Term

 

 

 

 

Random Selection

Definition

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Important because:

Term

 

 

 

 

Q: Why is random selection important to consider who is selected to participate in a research study and why they participate?

Definition
Term

 

 

 

 

3 conditions under which it is acceptable to have a restricted sample...

Definition

 

 

(1)

(2)

(3)

 

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Sample of convenience

Definition
Term

 

 

 

 

 

Random assignment

Definition

 

 

 

 

 

Important because: 

Term

 

 

 

 

 

Group equivalence

 

(Q: How can a researcher increase its likelihood?)

Definition
Term

 

 

 

 

Matching

 

(Q: What is it and how is it done?)

Definition
Term

 

 

 

 

Independent Variable

Definition
Term

 

 

 

 

 

Dependent variable

Definition
Term

 

 

 

 

Alternative hypothesis

Definition
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