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| the person who asks the questions |
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| The interviewee, who provides the answers to the questions |
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| Concern the central focus of the stud and are geared to elicit specific desired information |
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| Questions that are designed to check the reliability of response to the essential questions by asking a question written to obtain the same information, but in another manner |
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| General questions designed to establish rapport with the subject. They are incidental or unnecessary to the central aim of the study, but can help to get the full story from the subject, or to cool off the subject when a sensitive topic has been reached. |
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| Questions that provide a way for the interviewer to draw out more complete stories from subjects, to prompt them to elaborate, or tell more information, to reflect more |
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| A communication technique in which questions are worded to be simple enough for the least sophisticated of all potential respondents |
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| Words that illicit an emotional response that is usually negative |
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| the affected messages transferred from one acting individual to another through nonverbal channels. These nonverbal channels include body gestures, facial grimaces, signs, symbols, and even some phonemic sounds such as tongue clicks, grunts, sighs, and similar visible indicators |
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What is dramaturgy and the significance of the process?
Unique sense of performance, there is immediacy in the literal interview performance, whereas such immediacy is lacking in the one-dimensional transcript of a traditional interview. |
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Definition
Dramaturgy involves the elements and language of theater, stagecraft, and stage management. This theoretical perspective is derived in part from symbolic interactionists' general assumption that humans perceive and interac in reality through the use of symbols. (Actors, Audience, Director, Performance, Drama, Theater)
Similar to creative interviewing (using a set of techniques to move past the mere words and sentences exchanged during the interview process - it includes appropriate climate for informational exchanges and for mutual disclosures (emotional revaluation)
An interview may be seen as a performance in which the researcher and subject play off of one another toward a common end. |
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| A conversation with a purpose (to gain information) |
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| Three types of interviews: |
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Definition
Standardized interview: An interview using a formally structured "schedule" of interview questions, or script. The interviewers are required to ask subjects to respond to each question, exactly as worded.
Unstandardized interview: A loosely structured interview that has certain planned topics, but the actual flow of the conversation varies according to the responses of each informant. The interviewee is encouraged to lead the conversation
Semistandardized interview: An interview that is the middle ground between the standardized and the completely unstandardized interviewing structures. It has a number of predetermined questions and special topics that are asked in a systematic and consistent order, but the interviewers are allowed freedom to digress. The interviewer is expected to probe far beyond the answers to their prepared standardized questions. |
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| What are the four types of questions? Define and provide an example. |
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Definition
Essential Questions
Extra Questions
Throw-away Questions
Probing Questions |
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Similar to the dramaturgical perspective presented is what Holstein and Gubrium call active interviewing. The interview is not arbitrary or one-sided.
*The interview is viewed as a meaning-making occasion in which the actual circumstance of the meaning construction is important. The proposed dramaturgical model differs most from the active interview in its emphasis on the interviewer USING the constructed relationship of the interviewer and subject to draw out information from the subject. |
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Definition
Most formally structured
No deviations from question order
Wording of each question asked exactly as written
No adjusting of level of language
No clarifications or answering of questions about the interview
No additional questions may be added
Similar in format to a pencil-and-paper survey |
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| Semistandardized Interviews |
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Definition
More or less structured
Questions may be reordered during the interview
Wording of questions is flexible
Level of language may be adjusted
Interviewer may answer questions and make clarifications
Interviewer may add or delete probes to interview between subsequent subjects |
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| Unstandardized Interviews |
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Definition
Completely unstructured
No set order to any questions
No set wording to any questions
Level of language may be adjusted
*Interviewer may answer questions and make clarifications
Interviewer may add or delete questions between interviews |
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Definition
Interviewers make adjustments throughout the interview consisting largely of switching from one role to another or alternating their style of speech, manner, or set of lines.
*The various tactics and characterized roles used by used by dramaturgical interviewers allow interviewees to feel more comfortable. |
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| Widely shared idioms, such as various phrases used in Black English,and Chicano or Mexican "street spanish", professional jargon, ethnic expressions that are commonly dropped into English language conversations (or non-English, depending on where you are), and even popular cultural references. |
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| Affectively worded questions (Leading) |
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Definition
Affective words arouse in most people an emotional response that is usually negative. These questions are not intended to be antagonistic, they nonetheless can close down or inhibit interview subjects.
Example: Why? respondent may shut down
It is better to ask How Come? |
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| Double Barreled Questions |
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Definition
This type of question asks a subject to respond simultaneously to two issues in a single question.
*For example: "How many times have you smoked Marijuana, or have you only tried cocaine?" The two issues in the single question are slightly unrelated and may cause a confused response. |
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| Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) |
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Definition
| (Pencil and Paper surveys) The interviewer asks open-ended questions and types in the full accounts offered by the subject (skipping need to later transcribe) |
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| Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI) |
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Definition
Both CATI and CAPI employ a computer to provide the questions and capture the answers during an interview
*Face-to-face thereby restoring the visual cues lost during typical CATI (employs either dictation or voice capture) |
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Definition
Real time chat rooms, instant messenger protocols, and real time threaded communications
*Provide similar to face-to-face interaction for back and forth exchange |
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| Asynchronous Environments |
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Definition
| (e-interview) email, message boards, and privately hosted bulletin posting areas. Often undertaken for survey-based research |
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| Ten Commandments of Interviewing (a contentious researcher should follow the ten commandments) |
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Definition
1.Never begin an interview cold-spend several minutes for small talk
2. Remember your purpose in order to gain information
3. Present a natural front - be relaxed, affirmative, and as natural as possible.
4. Demonstrate aware hearing - offer appropriate responses
5.Think about appearance - be sure you have dressed appropriately for setting and subject
6. Interview in a comfortable place - make sure subject is comfortable
7. Don't be satisfied by monosyllabic answers - probe for more
8. Be respectful - see that the subject feels recognized +important
9. Practice, Practice, Practice - become a proficient interviewer by interviewing
10. Be cordial and appreciative - thank the subject when you finish (keep open communication) |
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| Data collected are intended for some further application, such as problem solving or marketing |
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| Studies that originate from a research question and use primary data collection to answer it |
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When several members of a group jump on board for a particular idea or series of comments about a given idea, attitude, or belief as the result of subgroup pressure
*Tendency not to rock the boat, limits research |
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| Interpretive Interactionalism |
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Definition
| This occurs when people spark off one another, suggesting dimensions and nuances of the original problem that any one individual might not have thought of. *A totally different understanding of the problem can emerge from group discussion |
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| Data reflecting the collective notions shared and negotiated by the group. This ca be contrasted to individual interview data that reflects only the views and opinions of the individual, shaped by the social processes of living in a culture. |
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| An interview style designed for small groups of unrelated individuals, formed by an investigator and led in a group discussion on some particular topic or topics. Using this approach, researchers strive to learn through discussion about conscious, semiconscious, and unconscious psychological and sociocultural characteristics and processes among various groups. (Guided or unguided group discussions addressing a particular topic of interest or relevance to the group and the researcher |
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| Problems to avoid in focus groups |
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Definition
1. Running a focus group because the investigator doesn't know what else to do
2. Being too vague about the objectives of the focus group interview
3. Using too few groups
4. Overreaching during any given focus group interview
5. Overly large groups
6. Too much or not enough influence from the moderator
7. Professional moderators tend to get professional results
8.Bullies |
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| Evolution of focus groups (WWII forward) |
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Definition
Military psychologists and civilian consultants used group interviews to determine the effectiveness of radio programs designed to boost army morale during WWII.
*1987 Radio response project of Lazarsfeld and Merton
*Focus group interviews found a home in marketing research |
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| Advantages + Disadvantages |
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Definition
Advantages:
1. Highly flexible
2. permits the gathering of large amount of information from potentially large groups of people in relatively short periods of time
3. can generate important insights into topics that were not previously understood
4. allows researchers to better understand how members of a group arrive at, or alter, their conclusions about some topic or issue and it provides access to interationary clues
5. can be used to gather information from transient populations
6. places participants on a more even footing with each other and the investigator
7. the moderator can explore related but unanticipated topics as they arise int eh course of the group's discussion
8. focus groups do not usually require complex sampling strategies
Disadvantages:
1. the quality of the data is deeply influenced by the skills of the facilitator to motivate and moderate
2. focus groups lend themselves to a different kind of analysis than might be carried out with surveys or even individual interviews
3. focus group attendance is voluntary, and an insufficient number may attend a given planned session
4. the length (duration) of each focus group needs to be fairly brief (ideally between 30 and 60 minutes, although longer focus groups do occur)
5. A limited number of questions can be used during the course of any focus group session
6. only group, not individual, responses are obtained in the results
7. Dominant personalities may overpower and steer the group's responses unless the moderator is sufficiently active
8. the researcher must be carful about how he or she uses (or attempts to generalize) information obtained from focus groups |
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| 5 Things included in Moderators Guide |
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Definition
1. Introduction and introductory activities
2. Statement of the basic rules or guidelines for the interview
3. Short question-and-answer discussions
4. Special activities or exercises
5. Guidance for dealing with sensitive issues |
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Definition
1. a clearly defined objective and/or research problem
2. the nature of the group: what are the group's characteristic
3. atmosphere/environment and rapport
4. an aware listening facilitator
5. a well-organized and prepared facilitator
6. structure and direction but restrained contribution to the discussion
7. research assistance
8. systematic analysis (either recoding or transcribed, data must be analyzed using some systematic means) |
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Definition
-avoid quantifying results or offering magnitudes
-provide quotations to support assessment of what the various trends and patterns of discussion are
-offer relevant characteristics of each group member prior to offering their quoted responses in order to provide a sense of three-dimensionality to group members
-make a point, or state a specific patter, before offering quoted materials intended to demonstrate the point or pattern
-use quotes to illustrate not prove. It does matter that everyone in your group prefers the yellow box over the green one, but it does not prove anything |
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| Organizational Ethnography |
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Definition
| Field research on the cultural dimensions of organizations |
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| a research method that places researcher sin the midst of whatever it is they study. From this vantage, researchers can examine various phenomena as perceived by participants and represent these observations as accounts |
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| An ethnographic process that occurs when the researcher abandons the idea of absolute objectivity or scientific neutrality and attempts to merge himself or herself into the culture being studied |
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| the world view of the insider, or native inhabitant, of a social environment |
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| the understandings and latent meanings uncovered by the research in the course of study: the outsider's view |
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| A research endeavor that attempts to describe the entire way of life of a group with a focus on the face-to-face interactions of members of the group or institution under investigation |
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| Research areas that are very difficult to obtain entry to because while elites are visible and easy to locate, they are able to establish barriers and obstacles and successfully refuse access to researchers, making them very difficult to study |
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| People or groups who are in positions to grant or deny access to a research setting |
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| Indigenous persons found among the group and in the setting to be studied who are convinced of the researcher's worth and value to the group |
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| Wen subjects know they are subjects in a research study, they will alter their usual (routine) behavior, and react to the presence of the researcher |
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| The ability to be present in the setting, to see what's going on without being observed, and consequently, to capture the essence of the setting and participants without influencing them |
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| Dangers that arise when a researcher exposes himself or herself to otherwise avoidable dangers, simply by having to be in a dangerous setting or circumstance to carry out the research |
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| Dangers that occur when the researcher's presence or behaviors in the setting trigger conflict, violence, or hostility from others in the setting |
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| A systematic method for classifying similar events, actions, objects, people, or places into discrete groupings |
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| Procedures that allow the researcher to make assessments about the degree of affinity or disdain that members of a group have toward one another |
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| Evolution of positive peer + negative peer realities |
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Definition
Positive: the group members were asked to name three or more peers whom they liked the most, or whom they best liked working with, or who were their best friends (depending on the kind of group) *A group members score was then computed as the number of nominations (Positive peer nominations)
Negative: In addition to asking for three especially liked peers, a second request was made that members identify the three peers least liked (or least desirable to work with) *This was used to identify the Popular group and the Rejected. |
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| Descriptions that reveal aspects of the subject through comparison with other subjects |
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The need to describe general perception
*Example: a wink distinguished from a twitch
The goal is to get the meaning behind the acts, describe and interpret social expressions between people or groups |
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| The idea that we are changed by the research environment. |
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An orientation where the researcher has a concern about social inequalities and directs his or her efforts toward positive change.
*intentionally seeks positive change and empowerment for participants |
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| Field Notes- Three Categories of observable experiences |
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Definition
1.Verbal exchanges (between others or the researcher and others)
2. Practices (various routines, actions, and interactions among and between participants)
3. Connections between and among observed exchanges and practices |
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| Suggestions for field notes |
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Definition
1. Record key words and key phrases while in the field
2. Make notes about the sequence of events
3. Limit the time you reman in the setting
4. Write the full notes immediately after exiting the field
5. Get your notes written before sharing them with others |
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| A practical strategy for social sciences that requires systematic, organized, and reflective investigations, and allows emancipation of people and groups interested in improving their social situation or condition |
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| Participatory action research |
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| A research framework that is a collective self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social relationships with on another in order to improve some condition or situation with which they are involved |
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| The participants in action research for whom the researcher is seeking to create positive changes |
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| A technique that captures the viewpoint of individuals who have not traditionally held control over the means of imaging the world by allowing stakeholders to take pictures |
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Types of Action Research
1. Technical/scientific/collaborative mode
2. Practical/Mutual Collaborative/ deliberate mode
3. Emancipating/enhancing/critical mode |
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Definition
-Grundy: Technical, Practical, Emancipating
-Barcott: technical collaborative approach, a mutual collaborative approach, and an enhancement approach
-McKernan listed: the scientific-technical view of problem solving, the practical-deliberate action research mode, and a critical emancipating action research
- Greenwood and Levin: Describe three types of participatory evaluation (Constructive evaluation, utilization and participation, and empowerment evaluation) |
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Basic tenants of Action Research
1. Identifying the research questions
2. Gathering the information to answer the questions
3. Analyzing and interpreting the information
4.Sharing the results with the participants |
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Definition
Looking-researcher assesses the situation and creates a picture about what is going on by gathering information
Thinking-making interpretations and offering some explanation about the case at hand
Action- toward improving the lives of participants (stakeholders) |
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| Action research has a wide range of applications in classroom, schools, hospitals, justice agencies and community contexts. The commonalities that draw these disciplines together in the conducting of action research are: |
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Definition
- a highly rigorous, yet reflective or interpretive, approach to empirical research
- the active engagement of individuals traditionally known as subjects as participants and contributors in the research enterprise
- the integration of some practical outcomes related to the actual lives of participants in this research project
- a spiraling of steps, each of which is composed of some type of planning, action, and evaluation. |
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| Understood as a means or a model for enacting local, action-oriented approaches of investigation and applying small-scale theorizing to specific problems in particular situations |
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| Descriptors of Action Research and Methodological Focus |
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Definition
1. Action research is systemic
2. You do not start with an answer
3. An action research study does not have to be complicated or elaborate to be rigorous or effective
4. You must plan your study adequately before you begin to collect data
5. Action research projects vary in length
6. Observations should be regular, but they do not necessarily have to be long
7. Action research projects exist on a continuum from simple and informal to detailed and formal
8. Action research is sometimes grounded in theory
9. Action research is not necessarily quantitative
10. The results of quantitative action research projects are limited |
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