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| half of the diversity of life is _____ |
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| process of change over time; decent with modification |
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| the product of evolution; approx 1.5 mil species |
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| mechanism of evolution; survival and reproduction of the fittest |
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| 5 observations of natural selection |
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1) species are prodigal
2) population sizes are relatively constant
3) resources are limited
4) variation among individuals
5) variation is inheritable |
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| Inferences of natural selection |
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1) not random survival and reproduction
2) environment does the selection
3) adaptations accumulate in populations
4) populations change --> new species surge |
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| ability to survive and reproduce to the next generation |
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directional
stabilizing
disruptive |
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| stages of life cycle in an organism |
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| Evolutionary relationships between all organisms |
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| differences in appearance based on gender |
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| process driving sexual dimorphism |
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| 2 proposed tempos for evolution |
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1)gradualism (Darwin)
2)punctuated Equilibrium (S. J. Gould) |
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| approx 500,000 species of verts but 90% are___________ |
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| started taxonomy in 1700's |
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more modern science-after darwin
more relationships were understood |
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| systematic way to name organisms |
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| Biological, Ecological, Genealogical, Morphological, Pluralistic |
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| Biological Species Concept (BSC) |
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| focuses on reproductive isolation of gene pools. "Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups" -Ernst Mayr |
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asexual species?
Who interbred with whom in the past, the fossil record does not tell us. |
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| Shared characteristic between 2 organisms-shared from a common ancestor |
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| Structures that look alike but they are not from a common ancestor |
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| (most primative) morphological homologies and "experts" in their fields...gut feelings by experts |
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| Emphasis on Synapomorphies/study of clades |
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| Shared derived characteristics |
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| different from the ancestor |
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| important concepts important in a cladogram |
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1) sister groups
2) mono-phyletic
3) para-phyletic
4) Out group
5) Basal node
6) Parsomony |
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| The shortest pathway to an answer (logical, easiest, most common sense) |
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most modern
Developed by geneticists
large number of molecular data
Complex computer programs
Parsimonious phenograms |
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| Tunicates, Ascidians, Sea suirts |
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-Having a notochord
Dorsal, hollow nerve chord
post anal tail
pharyngeal slits |
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-2000 species
-small, marine, transparent
-Adult is filter feeder, benthic, sessile
-larvae shows clear chordate features (tadpole like) |
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| Ascidiacea, Larvacea, Thaliacea |
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contains cilia and produces mucus
helps trap food and move it to the digestive tract
seems to produce horomones |
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| subphylum Cephalochordata |
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Lancelets
22 species
small, translucid
primitive fish looking chordate, cosomopolitan, long notochords, no larva stage,burrow tail first, myomeres (segmented muscles) |
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| Vertebrates (Craniata was old name) |
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notochord replaced by cartilage or bone
related to skeletal system
vertebral column
brain inside the cranium
3 part brain fore, mid, hind |
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Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata
Radial and indeterminate cleavage
Blastopore forms the anus, mouth second |
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| closest relatives of vertebrates-first hypothesis |
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| larvae obtained sexual maturity over time termed paedomorphosis (other terms- neoteny, Paedogenesis, Progenesis |
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| Closest relatives of vertebrates-second hypothesis |
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Cephalochordate (Branchiostoma lanceolatum) had basic chordate characteristics and feeding similar to lamprey larva, closed circulatory
Against-lack complex brain,excratory system different from verts, no paired eyes or ears |
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| is there a clear vertebrate ancestor |
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| no, most biologists think Amphioxus or Tuicates. Some think paedomorphosis. |
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| What are traits of the hypothetical Vertebrate ancester? (8) |
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| chordate trates, Distinct head, tube within a tube design, bilateral symmetry, major organ in a true coelom, active behavior, myomeres, external aromor |
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| blocks of skeletal muscle tissue found commonly in chordates |
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| 2 hypothesies where verts first evolved |
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| fresh water hypothesis and salt water hypothesis |
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most fossils are maried but proposed that they washed from freshwater habitats
the kidney is good at elimination of excess water so it would have been more beneficial in freshwater environments |
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| Most widely accepted, once the marine kidney evolved it modified for freshwater., earliest fossils were found in marine environments, in oceans today there are extant primative vertebrates |
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| Evolved in not conductive to fossilization..estuarine enviro? |
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oldest fossils 500 mya
late cambrian
ordovician-craniate fossils become abundant
fragments, incomplete |
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| 2 major advances in verts |
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| more muscle and bone......bone before cartilage |
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| Advantages of a bony skeletom |
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| Strong yet flexible, highly dynamic, electrically insulating(electroreceptors), storage of Ca and P, minerals act as chemical buffers that protect from acidic conditions such as lactic acid build up |
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| teeth, bony plates/spines, vertebral column |
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All animals have it, non-animals do not
verts have multiple copies |
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| hollow sphere of cells, referred to as blastomeres, surrounding an inner fluid-filled cavity called the blastocoele formed during an early stage of embryonic development in animals. |
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| an opening into the archenteron during the embryonic stages of an organism. The distinction between protostomes and deuterostomes is based on the direction in which the mouth (stoma) develops in relation to the blastopore |
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| single-layered blastula is reorganized into a trilaminar ("three-layered") structure known as the gastrula |
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| outside, digestive tract, nervous, and sensory organs |
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| lining of the digestive tract and respiratory system |
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| muscles and connective tissues |
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| Cell differentiation to form organs |
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| ectoderm to spinal chord and brain |
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| the ability to take some cells and make any part of the body out of them |
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| Epithelial, connective, muscular,nurvous |
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| lining of lungs, layering themselves, lining most organs,very little extracellular fluid |
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| huge amounts of extracellular matrix |
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| skeletal muscle, cardiac and other smooth muscles (intestines) |
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| mostly neurons and supporting cells |
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| what are the 11 organsystems |
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| Skin (Integumentary), skeletal, muscular, Digestive, Respiratory, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic/immune, Excretory, Nervous/sensory, Endocrine, Reproductive |
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| Integumentary system (skin) |
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| 15-20% of body weight, protection, insulation, gas exchange, thermoregulation, Communication, Vitamans. also glands and hair |
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| support, protection, movement, storage of Ca, better predator |
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| movement, metabolic heat, posture, quick kinetic reactions, myomeres (repetitice segments. |
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| energy and food gathering, feeding, intestines, liver, pancreas, 25% of body weight |
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| one opening for digestive, excratory, reproduction |
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| physical process of breathing or opening of gills |
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| cover called the operculum |
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| Closed system-delivers O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, and horomones-maintains temp, immunity, heart, interaction with respiratory |
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single pump-fish
double pump-terrestrial |
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| counter current exchange to keep inside warm |
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| carrys lipids, spleen, thymus, bone marrow, and lymph nodes |
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| Urinary system-chemical homeostasis, main organ is the kidney |
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| process of excretion in fishes (ammonia) |
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| process of excretion in mammals and birds (urea) |
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| effects are short lived, uses electrical signals, functional unit of the neuron, myelin sheath is insulation which increases the rate of transmission, brain, nerves, sensory organs |
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| the for/mid/hind brain distinction |
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| Chemical regulation, horomones,important for growth and reproduction, organs involved- hypothalamus, pituitary, gonads,thyroid, thyman, pancreas, adrenal glands.--> in primative organisms the endostyle. horomones include insulin and adrenaline |
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| either ovaries or testies are present |
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| temperature sex determination |
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| TSD. mainly found in reptiles |
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| inactive for a period of time |
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| when an egg(ovule) is released from the ovaries |
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| fertilization inside the female body |
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| infrequent (life partner) |
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| male with many females-lions |
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| female with many males- spotted sandpiper |
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| best known fossil for chondrichtyes |
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| major defining characteristic of chondricthyes |
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| elasmobranchi defining characteristic |
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| 2 different types of jaws for placoderms |
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| blunt plates that crush shellfish, knife like edge that cuts and punctures prey |
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| taking cells and making organs |
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| the development of spinal chord and brain. ectoderm |
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| what is the most diverse type of tissue |
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| what is the key characteristic of muscular tissue? |
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| epidermis, dermis, hypodermis |
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| three types of cells in the skin |
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| keratinocytes, Melanocytes (pigments), fibroblasts (collagen) |
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| what are examples of derived organs |
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| feathers, scales, poison glands, nails, enamel |
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| what is the difference between axial and appendicular. |
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axial-skull, spine, ribs
appen- 2 girdles (pectoral and pelvic), paired appendages |
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| 5 regions of the vertebral column |
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| cervical, thirassic, lumbar,sacral, caudal |
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| what is the largest organ of the body |
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| liver 25% of the body----full of oil |
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| what kind of gills do sharks have |
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| counter current exchange system (tuna) |
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| what can the kidney tell you about evolution |
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| type of environment that the organism lived in. also the evolution of the kidney |
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| what is the unit of excretion in the excratory system |
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| a nephron, kidney becomes more complex as the final product is formed |
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| how many pairs of cranial nerves are there |
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| what is the functional unit of the nervous system |
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| what is the functional unit of the neuron |
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| what are the 5 types of stimuluses for sensory. |
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| chemoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors, electromagnetic, thermoreceptor |
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| what is the most primative sense |
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| how many spinal nerves are there |
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| what are the three different ear components |
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| external, middle, inner ear |
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| endocrine system works with what other system |
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| either ovaries or testies are present |
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