Term
| essential amino acids and examples of them |
|
Definition
-amino acids we need, but can't produce
-lysine, methionine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, and threonine (lys, met, val, leu, ile, try, phe, thr) |
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|
Term
| essential fatty acids and examples of them |
|
Definition
-fatty acids we need to obtain from food
-omega-6 and omega-3 |
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|
Term
| some examples of water soluble vitamins |
|
Definition
| -Thiamin (B1)
-riboflavin (B2)
-Niacin (B3)
-Pyridoxine (B6)
-Vitamin C |
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|
Term
| the role of water-soluble vitamins |
|
Definition
| coenzymes, widespread effects, cannot be stored in the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| needed to convert pyruvate to acetyl CoA (important for Krebs cycle) |
|
|
Term
| the role of Niacin (B3) and riboflavin (B2) |
|
Definition
| needed to make FAD and NAD (used during Krebs cycle for production of ATP) |
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|
Term
| the role of Pyridoxine (B6) |
|
Definition
| needed for amino acid metabolism |
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Term
|
Definition
| antioxidant, helps reduce CV disorders |
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|
Term
| some fat-soluble vitamins |
|
Definition
-Vitamin A
-vitamin D
-vitamin E
-vitamin K |
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|
Term
| role of fat-soluble vitamins |
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blood coagulation/clotting |
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Term
|
Definition
-Molecules with an unpaired electron in their outer orbital
-Highly reactive, oxidizing or reducing other atoms |
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|
Term
| some types of free radicals and examples of them |
|
Definition
| -Reactive oxygen species (ROS) – O2·- and OH·-
-Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) – NO· |
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|
Term
| some organelles that produce free radicals and why they produce them |
|
Definition
-Mitochondria – oxidative phosphorylation, while producing ATP
-Peroxisomes, NADPH oxidase & other enzymes |
|
|
Term
| some functions of free radicals in the body |
|
Definition
-On WBC – destroy bacteria, cause lymphocyte proliferation
-Wound healing – proliferation of fibroblasts
-Vasodilation by NO· |
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|
Term
| what happens to cells when there's too many free radicals? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the cells that do not get oxidatively stressed by free radicals |
|
Definition
-white blood cells
-fibroblasts in the healing process |
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|
Term
| how the oxidative stress occurs |
|
Definition
| Free radicals – highly toxic to cells (OH·-) --> altering the structures of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other molecules --> cell damage --> cell mutation or death |
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|
Term
| health effects of oxidative stress |
|
Definition
| Promotes aging, inflammatory disease, degenerative diseases & malignant growth |
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|
Term
| some examples of endogenous antioxidant enzymes |
|
Definition
-Superoxide dismutase & superoxide catalase
-Glutathione peroxidase & glutathione reductase |
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|
Term
| some examples of exogenous antioxidants |
|
Definition
-beta-Carotene
-vitamin C, E |
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|
Term
| foods rich in exogenous antioxidants |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how antioxidants neutralize free radicals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the important balance that occurs between reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and defense |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some health problems that can result from having not enough free radicals |
|
Definition
-impaired immune function
-impaired cell proliferation
-other impaired responses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-fat cells
-adipocytes
-lipocytes |
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|
Term
| PPARγ (peroxisome proliferator activated receptors, subtype gamma) |
|
Definition
| function as transcription factors for activation of genes for differentiation & metabolism |
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|
Term
| how the differentiation of preadipocyte occurs |
|
Definition
| ↑ in circulating fatty acids or prostaglandin (PGJ2) → bind to PPARγ on preadipocytes → ↑ mitosis & differentiation of preadipocytes → ↑ # of adipocytes |
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|
Term
| PPARγ are in the same family as the... |
|
Definition
| R’ for thyroid H, vit A and vit D |
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|
Term
|
Definition
negative feedback loops to defend maintenance of a certain amount of adipose tissue
A hypothesis that keeps the level of body fat within a narrow range despite considerable variations in dietary fat intake and physical activity
Makes it difficult to lose weight |
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|
Term
| how adipose tissue is an energy source |
|
Definition
-Energy substrate is stored in adipose cells as triacylglycerol (triglycerides, neutral fat)
-The storage and release of neutral fat from adipose cells are hormonally controlled
+Examples – insulin, GH, thyroid H’, adrenal gland H’ |
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|
Term
| how adipose is a hormonal tissue |
|
Definition
| -Adipocytes secrete regulatory hormones called adipokines when their PPARγ are activated -Adipokines regulate hunger, metabolism, and insulin sensitivity -Adipokines include leptin, adiponectin, TNFα, resistin and retinol binding protein-4 (retinol BP4) |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Hormones (including leptin, adiponectin, TNFα, resistin and retinol binding protein-4 (retinol BP4)) secreted by adipose cells to regulate hunger, metabolism, and insulin sensitivity |
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Term
| how the leptin secreted by adipose tissue affects some of the organs in the body |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| how the leptin secreted by adipose tissue functions in energy metabolism |
|
Definition
| ↑ fat tissue → ↑ leptin secretion → ↓ appetite |
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|
Term
| how the leptin secreted by adipose tissue functions in starvation |
|
Definition
| ↓ adipose levels --> ↓ leptin levels --> ↓ immune activities |
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|
Term
| how the leptin secreted by adipose tissue functions in reproduction |
|
Definition
-Leptin levels link whether adequate energy reserves are present for normal reproductive function
-Leptin and timing of puberty
-Amenorrhea (cessation of menstrual cycle) of underweight women |
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|
Term
| how obesity leads to type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) |
|
Definition
Obesity → ↑ secretion of leptin, TNFα, resistin and retinol BP4 from adipocytes → … → ↓ insulin secretion → … → type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM)
obesity → ↓ adiponectin secretion → ↓ muscle insulin sensitivity → … → type 2 DM |
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Term
|
Definition
| insulin-sensitizing, antidiabetic |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how leptin is involved in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how adiponectin is involved in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how obesity leads to the cells becoming less sensitive to insulin on the way to developing type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) |
|
Definition
| obesity → ↓ adiponectin secretion → ↓ muscle insulin sensitivity → … → type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) |
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|
Term
| how the adipocytes behave differently in child and adult obesity |
|
Definition
-Childhood obesity involves increases in both size & number of adipocytes
-Weight gain in adulthood is due mainly to increase in adipocyte size |
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|
Term
| how obesity is often diagnosed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| BMI = w/h2
w = weight in kilograms
h = height in meters |
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|
Term
| healthy, overweight, and obese BMI ranges |
|
Definition
-Healthy weight is BMI between 19 – 25
-Overweight – >25 BMI
-obesity – > 30 BMI |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| BMI has a very positive correlation with cardiovascular disorders; higher BMI positively corresponds to higher risk of cardiovascular disorders |
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|
Term
| the thing in the brain responsible for hunger and regulating eating behavior |
|
Definition
| arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus |
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Term
|
Definition
| Secretion of neuropeptide Y (NPY) & agouti-related protein (AgRP) --> ↑ hunger --> promote eating |
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Term
|
Definition
| Secretion of melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) --> ↓ hunger |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| ↑ Circulating energy substrates --> ↑ in MSH and ↓ in NPY & ↓ in AgRP secretions --> ↓ appetite |
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|
Term
| neurotransmitters than can increase overeating |
|
Definition
-Endorphin
-norepinephrine |
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|
Term
| neurotransmitters than can decrease overeating |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the pathways involving leptin and the hypothalamus that suppress appetite and increase metabolic rate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pain-killing effects of endorphin |
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Term
|
Definition
| control outside the blood-brain barrier |
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|
Term
| hormone released by the stomach and what it does |
|
Definition
| Ghrelin (stomach) stimulates hunger via arcuate nucleus |
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|
Term
| hormones released by the small intestine and what they do |
|
Definition
-CCK (SI) promotes satiety
-PYY (SI) responds to caloric content --> ↓ appetite for 12 hrs |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| a satiety factor, involved in long-term regulation |
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|
Term
| how leptin is a satiety factor |
|
Definition
-Leptin --> ↓ NPY & ↓ AgRP secretions in arcuate N. --> ↓ hunger
-Leptin --> ↑ MSH --> ↓ hunger |
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|
Term
| the pathway by which insulin plays a role in satiety |
|
Definition
| Insulin --> ↓ NPY --> ↓ hunger |
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|
Term
| depiction of how the brain, adipose tissue, pancreas, stomach, and small intestine interact with each other to regulate hunger and appetite |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-contraction of gallbladder, secretion of bile, and then bile acid and bile salt within the bile that can help digestion of fat
-increase and stimulate the secretion of pancreatic digestive enzymes
-promotes satiety, which means the appetite has been reached
-stimulates insulin secretion, increasing the uptake of fatty acids, amino acids, and glucose into the cell |
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|
Term
| the 2 complementary components of metabolism |
|
Definition
-Anabolism (synthesis)
-Catabolism (hydrolysis)
[image] |
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Term
|
Definition
| -Is total rate of body metabolism
-over time, this is equal to the amount of O2 consumed by body/min (over time because anaerobic metabolism is sometimes used) |
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|
Term
| Basal metabolic rate (BMR) |
|
Definition
-Awake, relaxed, 12-14 hr after eating, at comfortable temp
-affected by age (higher in younger people), sex (tends to be higher in males), body surface area (higher in those with larger surface area), thyroid H' |
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|
Term
| relationship between thyroid and Basal metabolic rate (BMR) |
|
Definition
-Hyperthyroidism – high BMR
-Hypothyroidism – low BMR |
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|
Term
| Living cells are maintained by... |
|
Definition
| constant expenditure of energy (ATP) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
glycolysis & Krebs cycle
[image] |
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|
Term
| Fuels used to generate energy include... |
|
Definition
| glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, ketone bodies etc. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| heat required to elevate 1 cm3 H2O from 14.5-15.5°C |
|
|
Term
| energy content of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids |
|
Definition
-Carbohydrates & proteins – 4 Kcal/gm
-lipids – 9 Kcal/gm |
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|
Term
| Normally brain neurons use ______ as the preferred energy sources (E° substrates) |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| When encountering long-term starvation brain neurons can use ______ for energy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The preferred energy sources for resting skeletal muscles |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During exercise muscles use... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which cells can only use glucose as the absolute energy sources? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why do skeletal muscles prefer to use lipids when at rest and switch to glucose during exercise? |
|
Definition
| because at rest, they spare the glucose for use by the brain |
|
|
Term
| why red blood cells can only use glucose for energy |
|
Definition
because they don't have mitochondria, and therefore no Krebs cycle
-they can only do glycolysis |
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|
Term
|
Definition
-within 4 hr period after eating
-Absorption of abundant energy substrates (anabolic) |
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|
Term
| some anabolic processes that occur during the absorptive state |
|
Definition
-Glucose in excess → ↑ glycogenesis in liver (main) & skeletal muscles
+If excess exists after full glycogenesis → ↑ lipogenesis
-Fatty acids in excess → ↑ lipogenesis
-Amino acids in excess → ↑ protein synthesis |
|
|
Term
| why too much sugar results in obesity |
|
Definition
| because if excess exists after full glycogenesis → ↑ lipogenesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
–fasting state, > 4 hr after the meal
-Use of the stored energy substrates for energy (catabolic) |
|
|
Term
| some catabolic processes that occur during the postabsorptive state |
|
Definition
| ↑ Glycogenolysis, lipolysis & protein degradation |
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|
Term
| some energy-producing processes that occur during short-term to long-term starvation states |
|
Definition
-gluconeogenesis
-ketogenesis |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| formation of glucose from non-carbohydrates (amino acids, glycerol, lactate etc.) |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| formation of ketone bodies from lipids |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Conversion of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid |
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Term
|
Definition
| The production of glycogen, mostly in skeletal muscles and the liver |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrolysis (breakdown) of glycogen; yields glucose 6-phosphate for glycolysis, or (in the liver only) free glucose that can be secreted into the blood |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The production of glucose from noncarbohydrate molecules, including lactic acid and amino acids, primarily in the liver |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The formation of triglycerides (fat), primarily in adipose tissue |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrolysis (breakdown) of triglycerides, primarily in adipose tissue |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The formation of ketone bodies, which are four-carbon-long organic acids, from fatty acids; occurs in the liver |
|
|
Term
| specific disease in which the patient often has ketogenesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The body's transition between anabolism and catabolism is mainly regulated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some hormone changes in absorptive and postabsorptive states |
|
Definition
-Absorptive state – ↑ insulin secretion
-postabsorptive state – ↑ glucagon secretion |
|
|
Term
| diagram showing how the balance between anabolism and catabolism is maintained |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some hormones involved in maintaining the balance between anabolism and catabolism |
|
Definition
| antagonistic effects of insulin, glucagon, GH, T3, cortisol, and Epi |
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|
Term
| some hormones that regulate metabolism under certain physiological conditions |
|
Definition
-Adrenal hormones (H) – stress
-Thyroid H – basal metabolic rate & growth
-GH – growth & maintenance |
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|
Term
| why insulin secretion increases in the absorptive state |
|
Definition
overabundant of E° substrates (glucose, amino acids & fatty acids) --> ↑ insulin secretion
-Overall strategy – ↓ blood levels of E° substrates by storing in tissues |
|
|
Term
| some things that are caused by increased insulin levels |
|
Definition
When blood [insulin] increases --> ↑ anabolism and ↓ catabolism
-↑ Insertion of glucose transporters 4 on skeletal, cardiac muscles & fat tissue
+↑ Cellular uptake of glucose
-↑ Glycogenesis – ↑ entry of glucose into liver & skeletal muscle cells --> ↑ glycogen storage
-↑ Lipogenesis – ↑ neutral fat in adipose cells
-↑ Cellular uptake of amino acids --> ↑ proteins synthesis |
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|
Term
| how insulin and glucagon interact with liver cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how insulin interacts with adipose cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why glucagon levels increase in the postabsorptive state |
|
Definition
Postabsorptive state --> ↓ blood levels of glucose & fatty acids
-Overall strategy – to maintain blood glucose & fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how the adipose, liver, and skeletal muscles interact with each other during fasting |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some things that happen when glucagon levels increase |
|
Definition
-↑ glucagon --> ↑ Glycogenolysis in the liver --> ↑ blood glucose levels
-Also, ↑ glucagon --> ↑ lipolysis --> ↑ blood fatty acid levels (skeletal muscle, heart, liver, & kidneys use fatty acids as major source of fuel) |
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|
Term
| what higher glucagon levels lead to during mid- to long-term starvation |
|
Definition
| ↑ Gluconeogenesis & ketogenesis |
|
|
Term
| Normal fasting [glucose] levels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how blood glucose levels are maintained during the absorptive state |
|
Definition
Absorptive state – ↑ blood [glucose] (main effect) or ↑ blood [amino acids] --> ↑ insulin secretion
-↑ Blood [glucose] --> glucose binds to glucose transporter GLUT2 in β cells (GLUT2 is not insulin-regulated) --> ↑ insulin secretion --> glucose enters cells
-Insulin and glucagon normally prevent levels from rising above 170 mg/dl or falling below 50 mg/dl |
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|
Term
| how blood glucose levels are maintained during the postabsorptive state |
|
Definition
Post-absorptive or stressful state – ↑ glucagon
-↑ Glucagon secretion occurs only when ↓ blood [glucose] |
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|
Term
| meals that increase levels of both insulin and glucagon and why they do it |
|
Definition
| meals high in protein and low in carbohydrates -this is because amino acids stimulate insulin production and low carbs stimulate glucagon production -a perfect example of this is the Atkins diet |
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|
Term
| why hypoglycemia can cause neurological problems |
|
Definition
| because neurons rely mainly on glucose |
|
|
Term
| the effect of the autonomic nervous system on blood glucose levels |
|
Definition
-Sympathetic effect - “fight or flight”, enhances glucagon secretion, stress hyperglycemia
-Parasympathetic effect - “rest and repair”, “+” insulin |
|
|
Term
| the 3 hormones that regulate insulin and glucagon secretion and how they do it |
|
Definition
| -GIP -CCK -GLP-1 -Glucose in gut --> ↑ GIP (glucose-dep. insulinotropic peptide) secretion --> ↑ insulin secretion, ↓ gastric motility +Glucose ingestion vs. i.v. glucose injection -CCK (cholecystokinin) --> ↑ insulin secretion, ↑ secretion of bile and pancreatic digestive enzymes -↑ Blood glucose, amino acids, fatty acids --> ↑ GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide, incretin) --> ↑↑↑ insulin, β cell proliferation & ↓ appetite (potent anti-hyperglycemic) |
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|
Term
| how higher glucagon levels lead to stimulation of sympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
| higher glucagon --> glycogen breakdown --> higher blood glucose levels stimulation of sympathetic division of ANS for "fight-or-flight" reaction |
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|
Term
| why ingesting sugar causes more insulin release than injecting sugar |
|
Definition
because ingesting it, there's contact with the epithelial cells of the small intestine, leading to more secretion of insulin
Glucose in gut --> ↑ GIP (glucose-dep. insulinotropic peptide, or gastric inhibitory peptide) secretion --> ↑ insulin secretion, ↓ gastric motility |
|
|
Term
| glucagon-like protein 1 (GLP-1) |
|
Definition
-stimulates insulin secretion and decreases glucagon secretion
-this is a potent anti-hyperglycemic hormone
-↑ Blood glucose, amino acids, fatty acids --> ↑ GLP-1 (glucagon-like peptide, incretin) --> ↑↑↑ insulin, β cell proliferation & ↓ appetite (potent anti-hyperglycemic) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chronic ↑ in blood [glucose] |
|
|
Term
| Type 1 Diabetes mellitus (DM) |
|
Definition
juvenile-onset, insulin-dependent (ID) DM
-Occurs mainly at juvenile age, ~5% of DM patients |
|
|
Term
| how Type 1 Diabetes mellitus (DM) is an autoimmune disease |
|
Definition
-the virus that causes it resembles glutamate dacarboxylase
-as a result, killer T cells target glutamate decarboxylase in Beta cells → Beta cells destroyed, Alpha cells active → ↓ insulin |
|
|
Term
| in type 1 diabetes, hyperglycemia is due to... |
|
Definition
-Lack of insulin → glucose cannot enter the adipose cells
-↑ Glucagon/insulin ratio → ↑ glycogenolysis in liver → ↑ glucose exit into blood from liver → hyperglycemia
-Lack of insulin → rate of lipolysis > rate of lipogenesis → ↑ fatty acids in blood
-Fatty acids converted to ketone bodies → hyperketonemia → ketoacidosis → coma |
|
|
Term
| why someone with type 1 diabetes may need to drink lots of water |
|
Definition
because type 1 diabetes causes Osmotic diuresis
-Osmotic diuresis → glucosuria, dehydration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
increase in blood volume caused by osmotic pressure
-often seen in type 1 diabetes |
|
|
Term
| why people with type 1 diabetes may have larger appetites |
|
Definition
| because glucose and fatty acids can't enter the cells, due to lack of insulin |
|
|
Term
| some details about Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) |
|
Definition
-aka non-insulin-dependent (NIDDM)
-Account for 95% of DM patients
-Insulin resistance – cells fail to respond to insulin actions
-Blood [insulin] may be high or normal until late stage
-Slow to develop, genetic factors play a role
-Occurs mostly in mid-age people who are overweight |
|
|
Term
| how insulin resistance leads to type 2 diabetes |
|
Definition
When fat and muscle cells fail to respond adequately to circulating insulin, blood glucose levels rise
-glucose and fatty acids can't enter cells, due to insulin resistance |
|
|
Term
| treatment for type 2 diabetes |
|
Definition
Treatment – change in lifestyle:
-Increase exercise → ↑ GLUT-4 in the skeletal muscle cells (makes them more responsive to insulin)
-Weight reduction – ↑ fiber in diet, ↓ saturated fat |
|
|
Term
| the primary cause of type 2 diabetes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hypothesis for how increased dietary levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids can treat type 2 diabetes |
|
Definition
| ↑ polyunsaturated fatty acids → ↑ cell membrane fluidity → ↑ insulin R’ # → ↑ affinity of insulin to its receptors → ↓ insulin resistance |
|
|
Term
| oral glucose tolerance test |
|
Definition
one way to tell whether or not a patient has diabetes
-A person drinks a glucose solution and blood samples are taken periodically
-Normal person’s rise in blood [glucose] after drinking solution is reversed to normal in 2 hrs
-measures...
+Ability of Beta cells to secrete insulin (insulin secretion)
+Ability of insulin to lower blood glucose (insulin-resistance)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| indicator of diabetes after the oral glucose tolerance test |
|
Definition
Blood [glucose] levels in DM patients remain > 200 mg/dl 2 hr following glucose ingestion
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Symptoms of hypoglycemia
-Insulin injections → insulin shock
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the oral glucose tolerance test measures... |
|
Definition
-Ability of Beta cells to secrete insulin (insulin secretion)
-Ability of insulin to lower blood glucose (insulin-resistance)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| adrenal medulla secretes... |
|
Definition
-epinephrine (E)
-norepinephrine (NE) |
|
|
Term
| effects of the epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) secreted by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
-Fight or flight (sympathetic, short-term stress) --> need glucose for CNS & skeletal muscles
-epinephrine ↑ Glycogenolysis --> hyperglycemia
-epinephrine ↑ Lipolysis, converting fat into fatty acids – glucagon-like effects
-Second messenger – cAMP (similar to glucagon) |
|
|
Term
| adrenal cortex secretes... |
|
Definition
| glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) |
|
|
Term
| effects of the glucocorticoids (e.g. cortisol) secreted by the adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
-Long-term stress --> ↑ hypothalamic CRH --> ↑ pituitary ACTH --> ↑ glucocorticoids secretion
-↑ Glucagon secretion --> glycogenolysis --> hyperglycemia
-↑ Lipolysis, ketogenesis & hyperketoemia
-↑ Protein breakdown, gluconeogenesis --> hyperglycemia & general weakness |
|
|
Term
| what the word glucocorticoid means |
|
Definition
steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal cortex for glucose metabolism
-gluco: glucose
-corti: adrenal cortex
-coid: steroid |
|
|
Term
| the stress associated with glucocorticoids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| too much ketone bodies in the blood |
|
|
Term
| the 2 thyroid hormones released by the thyroid gland |
|
Definition
| Main form is T4 (thyroxine), active form is T3 |
|
|
Term
| some effects of thyroid hormone |
|
Definition
-Basal metabolic rate (BMR)
-Calorigenic effects (↑ metabolic heat) and cold adaptation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| role of T4 in growth and development |
|
Definition
-Protein synthesis
-Growth of skeleton
-Contributes to proper growth and development of CNS – prenatal to 6 months after birth |
|
|
Term
| symptoms of Hyperthyroidism |
|
Definition
| high BMR, weight loss, nervousness, irritability, intolerance to heat |
|
|
Term
| symptoms of Hypothyroidism |
|
Definition
| cretinism, myxedema, lethargy, weight gain, increased sleep, lower b.t., coarse skin, slow pulse and reflex, depression |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mental retardation during fetal or neonatal stage caused by hypothyroidism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when hypothyroidism causes edema by attracting mucoproteins into the extracellular fluid from the blood plasma into interstitial fluid |
|
|
Term
| diagram of what growth hormone influences and what that leads to |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| secretion of growth hormone (GH) controlled by... |
|
Definition
| growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) and growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH), both released by the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) and growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) are released by the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| growth hormone released by the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| indirect effects of growth hormone (somatotropin) |
|
Definition
(↑ body growth) – effects on bone & muscles, mediated by IGF 1
[image] |
|
|
Term
| direct effects of growth hormone (somatotropin) |
|
Definition
-Anabolic effects – ↑ protein synthesis, ↑ cell uptake of amino acids
-Catabolic effects – ↑ lipolysis, ↑ blood [fatty acids], ↑ use of fatty acids
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Diabetogenic effect of growth hormone (somatotropin) |
|
Definition
↓ glycolysis rate, ↓ glucose utilization --> hyperglycemia
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what the word somatotropin means |
|
Definition
A substance stimulates the growth of body
-"In" is a substance
-"Trop" is the growth of
-"Somato" means body |
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Term
| indirect effect of growth hormone (somatotropin) mediated by... |
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Definition
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Term
| In childhood, GH overproduction leads to... |
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Definition
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Term
| In childhood, GH underproduction leads to... |
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Definition
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Term
| In adulthood, GH overproduction leads to... |
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Definition
| acromegaly (jaw elongation; deformities in face, hands & feet bones) |
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Term
| Importance of plasma Ca2+ in the body |
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Definition
| Bone structure, muscle contraction, neurotransmission, second messenger, membrane permeability, maintaining membrane potential |
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Term
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Definition
| enhanced nerve excitability --> muscle spasm (tetanus) |
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Term
| some sources of of plasma Ca2+ |
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Definition
| -Bone deposition and resorption
+Skeleton also serves as a storage of Ca2+
+Osteoblasts for bone deposition (collagen + Ca2+) vs. osteoclasts for bone resorption
-Intestinal absorption and urinary excretion |
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Term
| depiction of how the osteoclast degrades bone |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-for bone deposition
-It will deposit collagen, and collagen is a network or meshwork, and then calcium and phosphate will deposit to form the bone structure |
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Term
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Definition
-for bone resorption
-takes calcium away from the bone |
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Term
| Parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
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Definition
| -polypeptide hormone secreted from parathyroid gland
-increases blood Ca2+
-Single most important hormone in the control of blood [Ca2+]
-Stimulating bone resorption of Ca2+
-Stimulating renal reabsorption of Ca2+
-Inhibiting renal reabsorption of PO43-
-Promoting formation of (OH)2 Vit D3 |
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Term
| Over-secretion of PTH leads to... |
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Definition
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Term
| depiction of where the parathyroid glands are |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-attached to, but not part of, thyroid gland
-secretes parathyroid hormone, which is a polypeptide hormone |
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Term
| how parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases blood Ca2+ |
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Definition
| -Stimulating bone resorption of Ca2+
-Stimulating renal reabsorption of Ca2+
-Inhibiting renal reabsorption of PO43-
-Promoting formation of dihydroxyl ((OH)2) Vit D3 |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| the bioactive form of vitamin D3 |
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Definition
| 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 |
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Term
| the organs that form 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 |
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Definition
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Term
| how 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 helps regulate Ca2+ absorption |
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Definition
| stimulates...
-Intestinal absorption of Ca2+
-Bone resorption of Ca2+
-Renal re-absorption of Ca2+ |
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Term
| depiction of the sunlight-dependent pathway that forms 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 |
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Definition
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Term
| the negative feedback loop 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D3 is involved in |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| -a peptide hormone secreted by parafollicular (C) cells in the thyroid gland (not parathyroid)
-lowers plasma Ca2+ by ↓ bone resorption (↓ osteoclasts activity) and ↓ renal reabsorption (↑ urinary excretion of Ca2+) |
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Term
| how calcitonin lowers plasma Ca2+ |
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Definition
-↓ Bone resorption – ↓ osteoclast activity
-↓ Renal re-absorption – ↑ urinary excretion of Ca++ |
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Term
| the negative feedback loop calcitonin is in |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
small cells in the thyroid gland that secrete calcitonin and are just outside the follicles
[image] |
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Term
| a treatment for osteoporosis that uses calcitonin |
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Definition
| nasal spray that gets absorbed through the mucosal layer of the respiratory tract |
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Term
| how the thyroid responds to high Ca levels |
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Definition
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Term
| how estrogen regulates bone growth |
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Definition
-Causes sealing (ossifying) of epiphyseal disc (cartilaginous growth plates) --> stops growth
-Is necessary for proper bone mineralization & prevention of osteoporosis
-Stimulates osteoblast activity & suppresses formation of osteoclasts
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| mechanisms to transmit the genetic code from one generation to the next |
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Term
| how sexual reproduction works (general details and flow chart) |
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Definition
-Genes from two individuals are combined in random ways to produce a new individual --> variation and adaptability
-Diploid vs. haploid chromosomes, mitosis and meiosis
-Fertilization – germ cells (gametes) → zygote
-zygote → embryo → fetus through growth and development
[image] |
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Term
| why sexual reproduction leads to differences in the new generation |
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Definition
| because it leads to variation and adaptability |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| The X chromosome has ______ genes |
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Definition
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Term
| The Y chromosome has ______ genes |
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Definition
80
including many testis-specific genes |
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Term
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Definition
the inactive X chromosome in a female somatic cell; can be seen on the cell nucleus such as neutrophils
[image]
-the Barr body is the condensed area referenced by the arrow; it is in a neutrophil (white blood cell) in a blood smear |
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Term
| Gonads remain indifferent until day ______ of conception in human fetus |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Sex-determining Region in the Y chromosome (SRY) |
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Term
| how the SRY gene leads to maleness |
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Definition
| SRY encodes testis-determining factor (TDF), which determines the gonadal sex of individual. |
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Term
| how testis-determining factor (TDF) determines the gonadal sex of the individual |
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Definition
-TDF is a transcription factor binding to DNA that enhances other transcription factors
-TDF induces maleness through the formation of testes
-TDF is essential to promote testis formation
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| the presence of external and internal reproductive tissue |
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Term
| some components of the testis |
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Definition
-Seminiferous tubules (day 43-50)
+Germinal cells
+Sertoli cells (nongerminal cells)
-Leydig cells
[image]
[image] |
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Term
| components of Seminiferous tubules |
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Definition
-Germinal cells / germinal epithelium – for spermatogeneisis
-Sertoli cells (nongerminal cells) – secrete inhibin, contain FSH receptors
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| germinal cells within the seminiferous tubules that produce sperm, that is, after they become spermatagonia |
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Term
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Definition
nongerminal cells within the seminiferous tubules of the testis
-secrete Mullerian inhibiting hormone (MIH, anti-Mullerian hormone) and inhibin
-contain FSH receptors |
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Term
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Definition
-secrete testosterone to masculinize embryonic structures
-contain LH receptors |
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Term
| In the absence of SRY, the bi-potential gonads develop into... |
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Definition
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Term
| In female ovaries follicles don't appear until day... |
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Definition
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Term
| Mullerian inhibiting hormone (MIH, anti-Mullerian hormone) |
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Definition
-In male, MIH secreted from Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules --> regression of the Mullerian ducts
-In female, without MIH, Mullerian ducts developed into uterus & uterine tubes |
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Term
| how Sertoli cells prevent the formation of uterus and uterine tubes |
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Definition
-In male, MIH secreted from Sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules --> regression of the Mullerian ducts
-In female, without MIH, Mullerian ducts developed into uterus & uterine tubes |
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Term
| when testes descend into scrotum |
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Definition
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Term
| how testosterone contributes to the formation of male sex organs |
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Definition
-In male, testosterone --> growth and development of the Wolffian ducts into male sex accessory organs (epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory duct)
-Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) --> development of male external genitalia (penis, scrotum & prostate)
-In female, Wolffian ducts degenerate in the absence of testosterone |
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Term
| depiction of the effects of hormones and the absence of them in fetal development of sexual organs |
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Definition
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Term
| how testosterone is converted into dihydrotestosterone |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| develop into uterus & uterine tubes in the absence of Mullerian inhibiting hormone (MIH, anti-Mullerian hormone) |
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Term
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Definition
| in the presence of testosterone, they develop into male sex accessory organs (epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and ejaculatory duct) |
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Term
| role of Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in determining the phenotypic sex |
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Definition
| Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) --> development of male external genitalia (penis, scrotum & prostate) |
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Term
| Female sex accessory organs develop as a result of... |
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Definition
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Term
| when the male and female external genitalia are the same |
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Definition
| the 1st 6 weeks of gestation |
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Term
| some homologous structures between male and female external genitalia |
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Definition
-Glans penis (♂) <--> glans clitoris (♀)
-Scrotum (♂) <--> labia majora (♀) |
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Term
| True hermaphroditism and what causes it |
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Definition
-Presence of both ovary and testis, both of them are not typical gonads
-Defects in Y --> TDF in some cells due to the influence of Y being not strong enough |
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Term
| Female pseudohermaphroditism and what causes it |
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Definition
-Congenital adrenal hyperplasia --> ↑ androgen production --> male genitalia
-No MIF --> maintains female internal genitalia (uterus and oviduct)
[image] |
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Term
| Male pseudohermaphroditism and what causes it |
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Definition
-type 1: Testicular feminization syndrome
+No androgen R’ --> (+) female external genitalia, vagina ends blindly (“+” MIH)
-type 2: Lack of 5alpha-reductase to convert T into DHT --> (+) internal, ambiguous external ♂ genitalia
[image]
[image] |
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Term
| depiction of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis |
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Definition
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Term
| the role of the hypothalamus in the Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis |
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Definition
Hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) into hypothalamo-pituitary portal vessels
[image] |
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Term
| the role of the anterior pituitary gonadotropes in the Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis |
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Definition
Anterior pituitary gonadotropes secrete gonadotropins (FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; LH, luteinizing hormone) in pulsatile fashion to prevent desensitization and down regulation of receptors
[image] |
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Term
| Effects of LH and FSH on gonads |
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Definition
-↑ Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
-↑ Secretion of gonadal hormones
-Maintenance of gonadal structures |
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Term
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Definition
important for the maintenance of gonadal structure
-examples: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) |
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Term
| what the gonads secrete in males |
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Definition
| sex steroids – androgens, mainly testosterone |
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Term
| what the gonads secrete in females |
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Definition
| sex steroids – estrogens (mainly estradiol, E2) and progestogens (mainly progesterone, P4) |
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Term
| what the gonads secrete in both males and females |
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Definition
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Term
| meaning of the word estrogen |
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Definition
-"gen": a hormone, a substance
-"Estro": means that induces a female to have heat, or to have sexual drive |
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Term
| the negative feedback caused by sex steroids and inhibin |
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Definition
-Sex steroids → ↓ LH & ↓ FSH
-Inhibin → ↓ FSH selectively
[image] |
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Term
| The onset of puberty is mainly because of... |
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Definition
| a change of hormonal secretion |
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Term
| the secretion of gonadal steroids before puberty |
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Definition
-secretion of gonadal steroids ↓↓↓
-FSH & LH secretion – high in newborn, fall to low levels in few weeks; undetectable before puberty |
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Term
| how puberty is initiated in humans and primates |
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Definition
-(Humans & primates) mainly at the brain level – brain maturational changes of GnRH neurons (↓ GABA inhibition; ↑ glutamate stimulation)
-↑ Pulsatile GnRH secretion (frequency & amplitude) --> ↑ pulsatile LH & FSH secretions (esp. during sleep) --> ↑ pulsatile sex steroid secretion --> produce secondary sexual characteristics |
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Term
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Definition
| an increase in frequency, and also an increase in amplitude |
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Term
| Age of puberty onset in females is related to... |
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Definition
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Term
| how age of puberty onset in females is related to the % of body fat |
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Definition
-Leptin secretion from adipocytes is required for puberty
-More active, slimmer girls begin puberty later
-Too much exercise may inhibit GnRH secretion |
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Term
| why age of puberty onset in females is related to the % of body fat |
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Definition
| because leptin, which is secreted by adipose tissue, affects reproductive activities |
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Term
| Functions of sex steroids after puberty |
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Definition
-Stimulation of spermatogenesis or oogenesis
-Secondary sexual characteristics |
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Term
| secondary sex characteristics in girls |
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Definition
| growth spurt, breast development, menarche (first menstrual flow) |
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Term
| secondary sex characteristics in boys |
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Definition
| occurs about 2-2.5 years later; body, muscle, penis, and testis growth |
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Term
| secondary sex characteristics in both sexes |
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Definition
| body hair is stimulated by androgens from testes in males and adrenal cortex in females at puberty |
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Term
| what Sertoli cells do to sperm |
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Definition
they wrap different stage of sperms together with their cytoplasms, the cytoplasm of Sertoli cells
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
-Production of testosterone (endocrine)
-Production of sperms (spermatogenesis) |
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Term
| anabolic effects of testosterone |
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Definition
Initiation and maintenance of body changes in puberty
Stimulates growth of muscles, larynx, & bone (until epiphyseal discs sealing)
Erythropoiesis – ↑ RBC production |
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Term
| behavior effects of testosterone |
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Definition
| sexual behavior & others, such as aggressiveness |
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Term
| some details about Production of sperms (spermatogenesis) |
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Definition
-Stimulated by testosterone (T) & FSH
-T for meiosis and early stage of sperm maturation; FSH for later stage of spermatid maturation
-FSH-FSH R’ on Sertoli cells --> ↑ LH R’ on Leydig cells --> ↑ responsiveness to LH --> ↑ T production |
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Term
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Definition
| hormone that makes a person male-like |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| 2 hormones that regulate spermatogenesis |
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Definition
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Term
| the roles of testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis |
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Definition
-T for meiosis and early stage of sperm maturation
-FSH for later stage of spermatid maturation |
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Term
| what R' means in physiology |
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Definition
receptor
example: FSH-FSH R’ means FSH-FSH receptor complex |
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Term
| how the anterior pituitary controls the seminiferous tubules and the interstitial (Leydig) cells with FSH and LH, respectively |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the process to produce spermatozoa |
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Term
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Definition
| the most primitive sperm cell attached to the basement membrane |
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Term
| the process of spermatogenesis |
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Definition
1: Spermatogonia – proliferate by mitosis
2: Each primary spermatocytes undergoes meiosis; the 1st meiotic division --> 2 secondary spermatocytes and the 2nd meiotic division --> 4 spermatids
-Spermiogenesis, where spermatids mature to spermatozoa, then get phagocytized by Sertoli cells to eliminate cytoplasm
[image] |
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Term
| the process of spermiogenesis |
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Definition
Spermiogenesis
Maturation of spermatozoa from spermatids
Phagocytosis of cytoplasm by the Sertoli cells – cytoplasm is eliminated
[image] |
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Term
| what a mature sperm looks like |
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Definition
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Term
| Functions of Sertoli Cells |
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Definition
| -Form blood-testes barrier: -FSH + FSH R’ on Sertoli cells --> secrete inhibin -Phagocytize residual bodies for maturation of spermatozoa -Secrete androgen-binding protein (ABP) |
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Term
| the junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells |
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Definition
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Term
| why Sertoli cells must form the bolld-testis barrier |
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Definition
to prevent autoimmune destruction of sperm
produce FAS ligand --> binds to the FAS R’ on T cells --> apoptosis of T cells --> prevents immune attack |
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Term
| androgen-binding protein (ABP) |
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Definition
-secreted by Sertoli cells
-Binds to testosterone and concentrates testosterone in the tubules |
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Term
| how the Sertoli cells are arranged around the seminiferous tubule |
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Definition
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Term
| epididymis (plural – epididymides) |
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Definition
-A site for maturation and storage of sperm
-Gains motility and resistance to pH and temperature changes |
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Term
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Definition
Carries sperm from epididymis into pelvic cavity
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
-Secrete fluid called seminal plasma (45-80% of semen) containing fructose
-Secrete prostaglandins
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| Secretes alkaline fluid (15-30% of semen) rich in acid phosphatase, citric acid, Ca2+
-important either as nutrients for the sperms or for the contraction of smooth muscle along the female reproductive tract
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| spermatozoa with fluids from seminal vesicles and prostate gland |
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Term
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Definition
-secreted by the seminal vesicle
-45%-80% of semen |
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Term
| the energy source for sperm |
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Definition
fructose
-supplied by the seminal fluid from the seminal vesicle |
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Term
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Definition
-not secreted by prostate gland
-mainly secreted by seminal vesicles
-help the contraction of smooth muscle in the female reproductive tract to help propulsing sperm from vagina through uterus into oviduct or fallopian tube for fertilization |
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Term
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Definition
| the spermatozoa from seminiferous tubule plus fluids from seminal glands and prostate gland and minorly from bulbourethral glands |
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Term
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Definition
| -Controlled by cerebrum, hypothalamus and sacral region of spinal cord
-Parasympathetic stimulation of erectile tissues
+Vasodilation of arterioles, blood flow into the erectile tissues of the penis
+Partial occlusion of venous outflow
+NO as the neurotransmitter activates guanlyate cyclase → ↑ cGMP → closure of Ca2+ channels → vascular smooth m. relaxation → vasodilation → erection |
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Term
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Definition
| movement of semen into urethra |
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Term
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Definition
| Sympathetic stimulation → peristaltic contraction of the tubular system |
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Term
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Definition
| Viagra etc. inhibit phosphodiesterase → ↓ breakdown of cGMP → promote erection |
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Term
| how ejaculation is caused |
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Definition
| -Sympathetic stimulation → contraction of testes, seminal vesicles, prostate & tubular smooth muscles
-Normal volume - 1.5 ~ 5 ml, 60-150 x 106 sperm/ml ejaculate; < 20 x 106 sperm/ml is oligospermia |
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Term
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Definition
when the sperm count is lower than 20 million per cc of the semen
-normal is between 60 to 150 million sperm cells per cc |
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Term
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Definition
follicles contain ova, corpus luteum (CL)
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
horn, body and cervix, endometrium
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
uterine tube, fallopian tube
[image] |
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Term
| components of Vagina and external genitalia |
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Definition
Labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, hymen
[image] |
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Term
| the numbers of oocytes a female has at ages 5 months to puberty |
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Definition
| -5 months gestation – 6 - 7 x106 oogonia -At late gestation – first meiosis (not complete) --> primary oocytes (diploid) -At birth – 2 x 106 primary oocytes -At puberty – 300K – 400K primary oocytes [image] |
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Term
| where in the oviduct fertilization occurs |
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Definition
ampulla aka fallopian tube
[image] |
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Term
| where the egg goes after it gets fertilized |
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Definition
develops into embryo, then moves from the lumen of the fallopian tube to the lumen of the uterus (uterine body in humans)
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| the mucosa and submucosa layer together; this is the mucous membrane of the uterus, the thickness and structure of which vary with the phases of the menstrual cycle |
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Term
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Definition
| the most primitive form of oocyte |
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Term
| the process of folliculogenesis and oogenesis |
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Definition
| -Primary follicles contain primary oocytes -Develop into secondary follicles +Appearance of vesicles containing fluid -Mature into graafian follicle +Fusion of its vesicles to form the antrum +1st meiotic division completed (secondary oocyte) +Proliferation of granulosa cells and cumulus cells (corona radiate & cumulus oophorus) +LH stimulates one graafian follicle --> ovulation; others --> atresia [image] [image] |
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Term
| how oogenesis occurs after the formation of a graafian follicle |
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Definition
-Fusion of its vesicles to form the antrum
-1st meiotic division completed (secondary oocyte)
-Proliferation of granulosa cells and cumulus cells (corona radiate & cumulus oophorus)
-LH stimulates one graafian follicle --> ovulation; others --> atresia
[image] |
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Term
| Endocrine control of ovulation |
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Definition
-Growth of follicles – FSH
-Stimulation of ovulation – LH |
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Term
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Definition
| the one compartment formed by the fusion of 2 secondary follicles |
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Term
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Definition
| other graafian follicles undergoing regression |
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Term
| chart of everything that happens in the menstrual cycle |
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Definition
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Term
| the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle |
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Definition
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Term
| what happens at the beginning of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle? (ovarian aspect) |
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Definition
At the beginning of the phase – ↑ pituitary FSH → ↑ in FSH R’ on granulosa cells → follicles more sensitive to FSH → ↑ # of granulosa cells
[image] |
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Term
| what happens during mid-phase of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle? (ovarian aspect) |
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Definition
| During the mid-phase → granulosa cells produce estrogen (main form – estradiol E2) → ↑ E2 secretion to follicular fluid and blood
[image] |
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Term
| what happens toward the end of the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle? (ovarian aspect) |
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Definition
| -FSH + E2 → ↑ LH R’ on granulosa cells of graafian follicle
-Rapid ↑ in E2 from granulosa cells → ↑ frequency of hypothalamic GnRH pulses → ↑ LH secretion
[image] |
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Term
| what happens at the E2 peak of the menstrual cycle? (ovarian aspect) |
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Definition
| -E2 peak → positive feedback of E2 → LH surge (D13)
-Ovulatory phase (D14)
+LH surge → ↑ accumulation of follicular fluid; degradation of follicular wall → ruptures of graafian follicle (D14) → ovulation
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| D15 to D28
-accompanied by negative feedback of progesterone, P4 & E2
[image] |
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Term
| what happens in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle? (ovarian aspect) |
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Definition
| -negative feedback of progesterone, P4 & E2
-LH → formation of corpus luteum (CL) from the empty follicle → luteal cells of CL secretes progesterone (P4)
-P4 exerts negative feedback on secretion of LH and FSH
-CL also secretes E2 → potentiates negative feedback of P4 on secretion of LH and FSH
-CL secretes inhibin → ↓ FSH secretion
-~D23 – if no fertilization → CL regresses (luteolysis) → ↓ P4 → menstruation
[image] |
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Term
| what the phrase corpus luteum means |
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Definition
"yellow body"
-corpus means body
-luteum means yellow |
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Term
| what the word progesterone means |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| lysis of the corpus luteum |
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Term
| Menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle |
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Definition
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Term
| what happens in the menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle? (uterine aspect) |
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Definition
| -Corresponds to early follicular phase of the ovarian cycle
-↓ in P4 from regressed CL of the late luteal phase --> menstruation (D1)
-Ovaries contain only primary follicles --> E2 and P4 are at their lowest
[image] |
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Term
| Proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what happens in the proliferative phase of the menstrual cycle? (uterine aspect) |
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Definition
| -Corresponds to mid to late follicular phase of the ovarian cycle
-↑ in E2 secretion --> stimulates proliferation of endometrium
-↑ in E2 secretion --> ↑ endometrial P4 R’, preparing for next phase
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| when the endometrium starts sloughing off on day 1 of the menstrual phase of the menstrual cycle |
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Term
| Secretory phase of the menstrual cycle |
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Definition
|
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Term
| what happens during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle? (uterine aspect) |
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Definition
| -Corresponds to luteal phase of the ovarian cycle
-↑ in P4 secretion → stimulates development of uterine glands
-E2 and P4 → stimulates secretions from uterine glands (uterine milk) → prepare to nourish an embryo
-Luteolysis (regressed CL) occurs if no fertilization → ↓ P4 secretion → necrosis and sloughing of endometrium → menstruation (D1 of next cycle)
[image] |
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Term
| some types of contraception |
|
Definition
-contraceptive pills, such as 3-week pills
-Norplant
-rhythm methods
-RU486 (Mifepristone) – morning after & medical abortion
-Essure
-Male contraception (vasectomy) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| their synthetic estrogen and progesterone (P4) mimic luteal phase → negative feedback on gonadotropin secretion → no ovulation
-this is a 3 week pill that permits 1 week for menstruation to occur
-underlying principle: without LH surge, there's no ovulation |
|
|
Term
| contraceptive pills usually contain... |
|
Definition
| synthetic estrogen and progesterone (P4) |
|
|
Term
| how contraceptive pills work |
|
Definition
| their synthetic estrogen and progesterone (P4) mimic luteal phase → negative feedback on gonadotropin secretion → no ovulation
-this is a 3 week pill that permits 1 week for menstruation to occur
-underlying principle: without LH surge, there's no ovulation |
|
|
Term
| Benefits of contraceptive pills |
|
Definition
-↓ Risk of osteoporosis & cardiovascular (CV) diseases
-↓ Risk of endometrial and ovarian cancer, but may increase the risk for breast & cervical cancers
-Prevent pregnancy at a higher success rate
-Reduce cramping |
|
|
Term
| how contraceptives reduce cramping |
|
Definition
| by making that smooth muscle more calm and more quiescent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| subcutaneous delivery without passing to liver first, effective up to 5 years, |
|
|
Term
| the rhythm method of contraception, how it's done, and the principles behind it |
|
Definition
| -Women measure oral basal body temperature upon awakening daily
-Preovulatory stage E2 high → b.t. moderately high
-The day of LH surge → E2, P4 low → b. t. lowest
-Luteal phase - high P4 → b. t. high
-No conception if coitus occurs 6 D before or 1 D after ovulation
[image]
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how oral temperature varies during the menstrual cycle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| RU486 (Mifepristone) form of contraception |
|
Definition
| -morning after & medical abortion -plan B -P4 antagonist occupies P4 R’, preventing the progesterone from stimulating the release of uterine milk; this makes the embryo starve to death |
|
|
Term
| Essure form of contraception |
|
Definition
| inserts are placed into the fallopian tubes by a catheter → induce benign fibrotic reaction → barrier formed prevents sperm from reaching an oocyte |
|
|
Term
| Male contraception (vasectomy) |
|
Definition
-disconnect vas deferens
-spermatogenesis continues, crypts present sites for immune reactions, develops anti-sperm Ab, but not autoimmune against testis
[image] |
|
|
Term
| menopause, general details |
|
Definition
| -Age ~ 50 years, give or take 3 years
-Cessation of ovarian activity and menstruation
-Ovaries are depleted of follicles
-Menopause – ↑ FSH and ↑ LH, because of no E2, P4, inhibin secretion (negative feedback loop)
-E2 and inhibin withdrawal ↑ hot flashes, and atrophy of the vaginal wall
-↑ risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases because estrogen has a protective effect against cardiovascular disorders
-↑ risk of osteoporosis because estrogen provides bone deposition ability and decreased bone resorption |
|
|
Term
| the phases of the human sexual response |
|
Definition
-Excitation phase (arousal)
-Plateau phase
-Orgasm phase
-Resolution phase
-Refractory period |
|
|
Term
| what happens during the Excitation phase (arousal) of the human sexual response? |
|
Definition
-Myotonia – increases muscle tone
-Vasocongestion – engorgement of sexual organ (nipples, clitoris, penis, labia minora); vaginal secretion --> lubrication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| engorgement of sexual organ (nipples, clitoris, penis, labia minora); vaginal secretion --> lubrication |
|
|
Term
| what happens during the plateau phase of the human sexual response? |
|
Definition
| engorgement of areolae (part of mammary gland), labia minora & vagina |
|
|
Term
| what happens during the orgasm phase of the human sexual response? |
|
Definition
-last for a few seconds
-Men ejaculate & women have analogous contractions of uterus & vagina (equivalent to contraction that accompany ejaculation in male) |
|
|
Term
| what happens during the resolution phase of the human sexual response? |
|
Definition
| return to pre-excitation stage |
|
|
Term
| what happens during the refractory period of the human sexual response? |
|
Definition
-Occurs in male only; erection possible, but ejaculation not possible
-Females are capable of multiple orgasms |
|
|
Term
| Ejaculate ______ sperms, only ______ reach (uterine) fallopian tube |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| things that happen during the fertilization process |
|
Definition
1: Capacitation of sperm
2: Fertilization occurs in fallopian tube
3: Acrosomal reaction
4: Hardening of zona pellucida
5: Completion of second meiosis in secondary oocyte |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Ejaculated sperms are infertile until in the female reproductive tract for > 7 hr
-this is when sperm become fertile |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-the cap (acrosome) disintegrates
-Trypsin-like enzymes in acrosome create pore on zona pellucida for sperm penetration
[image] |
|
|
Term
| why the zona pellucida hardens after fertilization |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-3 D for sperm
-<1 D for oocyte |
|
|
Term
| how sperm are capacitated in IVF |
|
Definition
| by the use of heparin or other compounds |
|
|
Term
| how the embryo grows after fertilization |
|
Definition
1: Cleavage of zygote – 36 hr after fertilization
2: Morula – >16-cell stage, 50~60 hr
3: embryo forms blastocyst – D4
[image] |
|
|
Term
| components of the blastocyst |
|
Definition
-Inner cell mass – fetus
-Trophoblasts – form placenta
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
->16-cell stage
-50~60 hr
-the embryo moves from the lumen of oviduct into the lumen of uterus
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the placenta is composed of... |
|
Definition
| two type of cells, one from fetus, the other one from maternal site |
|
|
Term
| Functions of trophoblasts |
|
Definition
-forms fetal portion of placenta
-D5~6 after fertilization – 10th wk of pregnancy
-Secretion of hCG (LH-like) --> maintains corpus luteum (CL) --> prevent menstruation |
|
|
Term
| how the trophoblast signals the presence of embryo |
|
Definition
Secretion of hCG (LH-like) --> maintains corpus luteum (CL) --> prevent menstruation
-HGC gets into the mother's blood to signal presence of embryo
-recall that the corpus luteum secretes progesterone, leading to the production of uterine milk so the embryo can survive before placentation occurs
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some pregnancy tests that can be used to determine pregnancy |
|
Definition
-hCG – earliest detection 6-12 D
-Early pregnancy factor – 48 hr |
|
|
Term
| meaning of the word cardiovascular |
|
Definition
| Cardio- heart; vascular- blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| some of the transport roles of blood |
|
Definition
| -O2 and CO2 (together with the respiratory system)
-Nutritive functions – transport of the digested products
-Excretory substances – metabolic wastes (urea), water & ions |
|
|
Term
| some of the regulatory roles of blood |
|
Definition
-hormonal regulation
-temperature regulation |
|
|
Term
| some of the protective roles of blood |
|
Definition
-Leukocytes (WBC) and body defense
-Blood clotting mechanism |
|
|
Term
| some things that can happen as a result of lack of oxygen |
|
Definition
| -Interruption of blood to brain for 8 sec – unconsciousness
-Lack of O2 (cardiac arrest) for 6 min – brain death |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
4 chambers
-2 atria
-2 ventricles
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receive venous blood pump it into ventricles
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receive atrial blood pump it into arterial systems
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
systemic circulation
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
pulmonary circulation
[image] |
|
|
Term
| The cardiac cycle (contraction & relaxation) |
|
Definition
-When pumps contract (systole) – ejection of blood to arteries
-When pumps relax (diastole) – filling of blood
-Intermittent (on & off) pattern of blood flow in the heart – during relaxation (filling), no blood flow to blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| diagram of the pulmonary and systemic circulation of the circulatory system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the pathway for systemic circulation |
|
Definition
| left atrium (oxygenated blood, high PO2) --> ventricle --> aorta --> arteries --> arterioles --> peripheral capillaries --> (deoxy blood, low PO2) --> … --> veins --> vena cava --> right atrium |
|
|
Term
| the pathway for pulmonary circulation |
|
Definition
| right atrium (deoxy blood) --> ventricle --> pul artery --> pul arterioles --> pul capillaries for gas exchange (oxygenated blood) --> … --> pul vein --> left atrium |
|
|
Term
| how the pulmonary and systemic circulations relate to each other |
|
Definition
Pulmonary + systemic circulations = one close-type circulatory system --> flow rate through systemic circulation = flow rate through pulmonary circulation
[image][image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the part of the circulatory system that does gas exchange in the lungs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the part of the circulatory system that delivers oxygen to the peripheral tissue |
|
|
Term
| why the rates of pulmonary and systemic circulation have to be equal to each other |
|
Definition
| because if they're not, there will be congestion of blood in either the lungs or the systemic circulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-left pump: left atrium and left ventricle
-right pump: right atrium and right ventricle
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-aorta
-arteries
-arterioles
-capillaries
-venules
-veins
-vena cava
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some components of the lymphatic system |
|
Definition
-lymphatic vessels
-lymph nodes |
|
|
Term
| the function of cardiac valves |
|
Definition
| they allow the circulation one-directional |
|
|
Term
| Atrioventricular (AV) valves a.k.a. bicuspid (left) & tricuspid (right) valves |
|
Definition
Allow blood to flow from atria to ventricles
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Semilunar valves a.k.a. aortic (left) & pulmonic (right) valves |
|
Definition
Allow blood leave ventricles --> pulmonary or systemic circulation
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some details about the flow of blood |
|
Definition
-based on pressure gradient
-blood flow from high pressure to low pressure
-relaxation sucks blood in
-cardiac contraction pushes blood out |
|
|
Term
| basic structure of arteries and veins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the layers of blood vessels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
endothelial cell layer present in all vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
-separates the lumen of the blood vessel from the rest of the structures in the blood vessel
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the composition of arteries differs from that of veins |
|
Definition
| arteries contain more smooth muscle and elastin than veins |
|
|
Term
| compliance aka distensibility aka expansibility |
|
Definition
how well this blood vessel can be expanded
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Elasticity aka contractility |
|
Definition
how well this blood vessel can bounce back to its original shape, original diameter, after expansion
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the role of smooth muscle and elastin in arteries |
|
Definition
| reduce the magnitude of bp fluctuation in the arteries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they prevent back flow, ensure uni-directional flow -they need valves because they don't have as much smooth muscle as arteries do |
|
|
Term
| type of blood vessel with no smooth muscle |
|
Definition
| capillaries; they only have endothelium |
|
|
Term
| function of skeletal muscle pump |
|
Definition
-Rhythmic contraction & relaxation of skeletal muscles surrounding the veins --> ↑ blood return to right atrium
-“Second heart” of the body
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Compliance/elasticity is mainly due to... |
|
Definition
| elastic fibers (rubber bands) |
|
|
Term
| the process of compliance (expansibility, distensibility) |
|
Definition
↑ in BP during systole (ventricles are larger than aorta) --> ↑ lumen diameters --> BP? --> limits the magnitude of BP rise
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the process of elasticity (contractility) |
|
Definition
↓ in BP during diastole --> ↑ arterial elasticity (tendency to recoil to previous shape after deformation) --> sustains BP from dropping too low --> allows continuous blood perfusion to tissues
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the distribution of blood in veins and arteries |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some functions of the lymphatic system |
|
Definition
-Transports interstitial fluid (lymph)
-Transports absorbed fat from small intestine to blood
-Lymph nodes and lymphocytes –immune functions |
|
|
Term
| the flow between the lymphatic system and the cardiovascular system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of lymphatic vessels |
|
Definition
Closed-ended lymphatic capillaries in systemic and pulmonary circulations
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the path lymph takes in the lymphatic system to the circulatory system |
|
Definition
| Lymphatic capillaries --> lymph ducts --> thoracic duct (lt.) and right lymphatic duct --> subclavian veins --> vena cava --> rt. atrium |
|
|
Term
| how blood is separated into its components |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the components of blood and their percentages |
|
Definition
-plasma: 55%
-buffy coat (leukocytes and platelets): <1%
-erythrocytes: 45% |
|
|
Term
| some substances found in blood plasma |
|
Definition
| -Dissolved ions – Na+ (major) and others -Plasma proteins (7-9% of plasma, gm/dl) --> colloid osmotic P +Albumins +Globulins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-~60%-80% of plasma proteins
-produced by the liver
-for osmotic P and buffering blood pH |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-alpha & beta globulins
-produced by liver
-transport of lipids & fat-soluble vitamins
-gamma globulins (immunoglobulins) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the force that the fluid needs to overcome before fluid can go out of capillary pores, into the interstitial tissue |
|
|
Term
| why the blood plasma needs plasma proteins |
|
Definition
| to create colloid osmotic pressure to prevent the fluid from going out of capillary pores, into the interstitial tissue |
|
|
Term
| the cause and effect of blood plasma concentration being too low in the blood plasma |
|
Definition
-caused by liver problem
-edema results |
|
|
Term
| composition of buffy coat component of blood |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
flattened biconcave discs to increase surface area for the diffusion of oxygen
-No nuclei, no mitochondria
-Hemoglobin (Hb) – O2 & CO2 |
|
|
Term
| the number of RBC (erythrocytes) produced each day |
|
Definition
| Produce 300 x 109 RBCs each day |
|
|
Term
| RBC (erythrocyte) levels in men and women and why it's different |
|
Definition
| ♂ – 5.1-5.8; ♀ – 4.3-5.2 (106/mm3)
-the difference is because testosterone stimulates production of erythropoietin, which stimulates RBC production |
|
|
Term
| the types of formed elements that can be found in blood |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why erythrocytes (RBCs) are biconcave discs |
|
Definition
| to increase surface area for the diffusion of oxygen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| white blood cells that have granules in the cytoplasm, such as basophils (fewest), eosinophils, and neutrophils aka polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) (50-70% WBC) |
|
|
Term
| the types of granulocytes |
|
Definition
-basophils (fewest)
-eosinophils
-neutrophils aka polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) (50-70% WBC) |
|
|
Term
| why neutrophils are also called polymorphonuclear cells (PMN) |
|
Definition
| because their nucleus divides into multiple leaflets; the older the neutrophil, the more leaflets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| white blood cells that do not contain granules in their cytoplasm, such as monocytes & lymphocytes (adaptive immunity) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fragments of megakaryocytes |
|
|
Term
| how Thrombocytes (platelets) are formed |
|
Definition
liver and kidneys
produce thrombopoietin, which stimulates bone marrow to produce megakaryocytes, which then fragment into smaller pieces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
formation of blood cells
-Erythropoiesis (production of RBC)
-Leukopoiesis (production of WBC)
-Thrombopoiesis (production of thrombocytes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| production of RBC
-Stimulated by erythropoietin from kidney (low PO2)
-Site of production – bone marrow
-RBC life span – 120 days |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| production of WBC
-Controlled by inflammatory cytokines
-Site of production – lymphoid tissues, such as the thymus, the lymph nodes, and spleen
-WBC conc. ~ 5-9x103/mm3
-life span – 100-300 days (agranular WBC, such as monocytes and lymphocytes), <3 days (granular WBC, such as neutrophils) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
production of thrombocytes
-Thrombopoietin – produced by liver and kidneys
-Action site – bone marrow; life span - 5-9 days |
|
|
Term
| what happens to old red blood cells after 120 days? |
|
Definition
they get degraded by lymphoid tissue, plus the liver, and become bilirubin
-after being oxidized, part of that bilirubin becomes part of the feces and part of it becomes the color of the urine |
|
|
Term
| the white blood cell that is the first line of defense |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| physically separates blood from collagen and other platelet activators
-secrete nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin (PGI2) for ↑ Vasodilation and ↓ platelet aggregation |
|
|
Term
| how endothelial cells prevent blood clotting in intact vessels |
|
Definition
| -they secrete nitric oxide (NO) and prostacyclin (PGI2) for ↑ Vasodilation and ↓ platelet aggregation
-Endothelial membrane contains CD39 to:
Convert blood ADP --> AMP + Pi, thus ↓ ADP --> ↓ platelet plug formation
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what happens when the blood vessel is damaged? |
|
Definition
| injury --> von Willebrand factor (VWF) from injured endothelial cells binds to collagen and platelets --> platelets adhere to subendothelial collagen --> Activated platelets release ADP and thromboxane (TxA2) --> Thromboxane & serotonin cause vasoconstriction --> ADP & thromboxane attract other platelets --> forms the platelet plug
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how aspirin reduces blood clotting |
|
Definition
| Aspirin --> ↓ formation of thromboxane --> ↓ formation of platelet plug |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of blood clotting |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Intrinsic pathway of blood clotting |
|
Definition
activated by collagen of damaged b.v. (within)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Extrinsic pathway of blood clotting |
|
Definition
activated by tissue thromboplastin (tissue factor) from the surrounding damaged tissue (outside b.v.)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of blood clotting working together |
|
Definition
--> common pathway (factor X)
-Factor X activates prothrombin --> thrombin
-Thrombin activates fibrinogen (soluble) into fibrin (insoluble) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| platelet plug + fibrin meshwork + RBC |
|
|
Term
| The clotting sequence requires... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens to plasma after clot formation? |
|
Definition
plasma --> serum
-plasma = serum + fibrinogen |
|
|
Term
| the clot dissolution process |
|
Definition
1: Plasminogen – produced by liver, inactive, in blood
2: Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) from endothelial cells converts plasminogen → plasmin (bioactive)
3: Plasmin cleaves fibrin into split products → clot removed |
|
|
Term
| how anticoagulants reduce blood clotting |
|
Definition
| Endogenous heparin → ↑ plasma antithrombin III → ↓ clot formation |
|
|
Term
| some examples of anticoagulants |
|
Definition
| Sodium citrate & EDTA – chelate Ca2+
NOTE: they can only be used in vica levels in bloodtro, because you dont want to deplete |
|
|
Term
| Function of vitamin K in clotting |
|
Definition
| -Vit K convert glutamate into gamma-CO-glutamate in some clotting factors (II, VII, IX & X) → functional clotting factors
-gamma-CO-glutamate attracts Ca2+ to clotting factors |
|
|
Term
| how Coumarin inhibits blood clotting |
|
Definition
-inhibits vit K activities (slow)
-Warfarin as a rodenticide, clinically used as a blood thinner |
|
|
Term
| how heparin is an anticoagulant |
|
Definition
| Endogenous heparin → ↑ plasma antithrombin III → ↓ clot formation |
|
|
Term
| something bad blood thinners can do to the brain |
|
Definition
| sometimes cause microembolism in brain |
|
|
Term
| the 2 major parts of the cardiac cycle |
|
Definition
-Systole – contraction phase, for ejection
-Diastole – relaxation phase, for filling into ventricle |
|
|
Term
| diagram of the sequence of the cardiac cycle for a cycle of 0.8 seconds (75 cycles per minute) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the timing of the contraction of the atria and the ventricles and why |
|
Definition
-Atria contract simultaneously; ventricles follow 0.1-0.2 seconds (second) later
-Atria contract first due to the location of pacemaker
-both atria have the same myocardium and both ventricles have the same myocardium |
|
|
Term
| The end-diastolic volume (EDV) |
|
Definition
-Also known as preload
-80% EDV is due to ventricular relaxation
-The final 20% EDV is due to atrial contraction |
|
|
Term
| The end-systolic volume (ESV) |
|
Definition
-Also known as afterload
-Ejection fraction – systole ejects about 2/3 (55-70%) of its blood vol, leaving about 1/3 as ESV |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the amount of blood ejected from ventricles during systole |
|
|
Term
| the sequence of the cardiac cycle |
|
Definition
1: atrial contraction during the final phase of ventricular relaxation
-conduction delay from atria --> ventricles = 0.1-0.2 seconds
2: atrial contraction --> ventricular contraction (systole)
3: atria relax during ventricular relaxation (systole)
4: ventricular relaxation during the 2nd half of atrial relaxation
5: atria contract in the last 0.1 second of (ventricular) diastole |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how blood moves through the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During diastole, the intra-ventricular pressure can be ______, whereas the systemic arterial pressure is... |
|
Definition
as low as 0 mm Hg
~80 mm Hg
this is because of the smooth muscles tone in the vessels |
|
|
Term
| chart of the systolic and diastolic phase of the cardiac cycle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the systolic ventricular part of the cardiac cycle (ventricular relaxation) |
|
Definition
-Isovolumetric contraction (#1) – ventricles contract → ↑ ventricular BP; when > atrial BP → close AV valves; arterial BP still > ventricular BP → semilunar valves remain closed → no ejection of blood (iso-volume)
-Phase of ejection (#2) – when ventricular BP > arterial BP → open semilunar valves → blood ejects to arteries until ventricular BP < arterial BP → semilunar valves close → diastole
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Isovolumetric contraction |
|
Definition
| ventricles contract → ↑ ventricular BP; when > atrial BP → close AV valves; arterial BP still > ventricular BP → semilunar valves remain closed → no ejection of blood (iso-volume) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when ventricular BP > arterial BP → open semilunar valves → blood ejects to arteries until ventricular BP < arterial BP → semilunar valves close → diastole |
|
|
Term
| the diastolic ventricular part of the cardiac cycle (ventricular relaxation) |
|
Definition
-Isovolumetric relaxation (#3) – ↓ ventricular BP ventricular BP
-Phase of rapid filling (#4) – when atrial BP > ventricular BP → AV valves open → rapid filling
-Phase of the final filling (#5) – caused by atrial contraction (beginning of the next cardiac cycle)
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ↓ ventricular BP ventricular BP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when atrial BP > ventricular BP → AV valves open → rapid filling |
|
|
Term
| Phase of the final filling |
|
Definition
| caused by atrial contraction (beginning of the next cardiac cycle) |
|
|
Term
| the sequence leading to the 1st "lub" sound of the heartbeat |
|
Definition
caused by closure of AV valves
At the beginning of systole, when ventricular BP exceeds atrial BP --> AV valves closure --> turbulent blood flow --> produces the first heart sound, or "lub" at beginning of systole |
|
|
Term
| the sequence leading to the 2nd "dub" sound of the heartbeat |
|
Definition
caused by closure of semilunar valves
At the end of systole (near the beginning of diastole), when arterial BP exceeds ventricular BP intra-atrial P --> semilunar valves closure --> turbulent blood flow --> produces the second heart sound, or "dub" |
|
|
Term
| the sequence that leads to the 3rd heart sound |
|
Definition
caused by turbulence
occurs just after S2 when AV valve open --> rapid passive filling of ventricles --> turbulent blood flow --> S3 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
abnormal heart sounds produced by turbulent blood flow
-caused by valvular defects |
|
|
Term
| how valvular insufficiency/incompetent valves lead to heart murmurs |
|
Definition
a valve that does not close adequately --> retrograde flow
-Damage to papillary muscles
Valves do not close properly. Murmurs produced as blood regurgitates through valve flaps |
|
|
Term
| how valvular stenosis leads to heart murmurs |
|
Definition
a valve which does not open adequately (thickened or calcified) --> restricts flow
-Impairs blood flow from left atrium to left ventricle
-Accumulation of blood in left atrium may cause pulmonary hypertension |
|
|
Term
| how infection can lead to heart murmurs |
|
Definition
| Infection (rheumatic endocarditis) leads to valvular stenosis, which causes heart murmurs |
|
|
Term
| Septal defects in the heart |
|
Definition
-usually congenital
-Holes in septum between the left and right sides of the heart
May occur either in interatrial (ASD) or interventricular septum (VSD)
Blood passes from left to right
-can cause heart murmurs
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
desmosome (physical connection) + connexon (gap junction for ionic conductance)
this is between all adjacent heart cells |
|
|
Term
| where the intercalated disc is located between adjacent heart cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the action potential spreads through myocardial (heart) cells |
|
Definition
| Action potentials spread through myocardial cells through intercalated discs (gap junctions) --> Cardiac muscle functions as syncytium (atria vs. ventricles) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| resting membrane potential |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -pacemaker, spontaneous depolarization --> automaticity -Caused by Na+ inflow through hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels that opens when hyperpolarized, open faster with cAMP stimulation |
|
|
Term
| how the pacemaker action potential works |
|
Definition
| -Depolarization – (main) voltage-gated Ca2+ channels --> Ca2+ inflow; (secondary) voltage-gated Na+ channels
-Repolarization – VG K+ channels open --> K+ diffuses outward
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Resting membrane potential of contractile cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sequence by which an action potential causes a heartbeat |
|
Definition
| AP at SA node (auto-rhythmic cells) --> AP at contractile cells --> voltage-gated fast Na+ channels open --> Na+ inflow --> rapid depolarization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Rapid reversal in membrane polarity to –15 mV
-Voltage-gated slow Ca2+ channels open --> Ca2+ inflow --> Ca2+ --> release from sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) through Ca2+ stimulated Ca2+ release channels
-lasts ~100 ms in atria; ~300 ms in ventricles
-the Ca getting into the cells maintains the plateau phase, causing the action potential to last longer
[image] |
|
|
Term
| changes in action potential, heart vs. neuron |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the path of the action potential from the SA node to causing the atria to contract |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the path the action potential takes from atria to ventricles |
|
Definition
| atria --> AV node (slow conducting) --> Bundle of His --> Purkinje fibers --> all ventricular muscle cells --> Ca2+ inflow --> Ca2+ ↑ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum --> contraction of both ventricles simultaneously
the contraction of the ventricle is caused by excitation-contraction coupling |
|
|
Term
| chart showing the action potential compared to the contraction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the path the action potential takes from sinoatrial (SA) node to the atria and then the ventricles |
|
Definition
| SA node --> atria --> AV node (slow conducting) --> Bundle of His --> Purkinje fibers --> all ventricular muscle cells --> Excitation-contraction coupling
Ca2+ inflow --> Ca2+ ↑ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum --> contraction of both ventricles simultaneously |
|
|
Term
| why summation (tetanus) does not occur in the heart |
|
Definition
| Refractory Periods -Refractory periods ~ contraction time ~ 300 msec in ventricles -Summation cannot occur |
|
|
Term
| electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) |
|
Definition
| records the electrical activity of the heart by picking up the movement of ions in body tissues in response to this activity |
|
|
Term
| how the ECG/EKG measures the electrical activity outside the heart |
|
Definition
Electrodes connect to outside of the heart muscle
-Heart is bathed in the interstitial fluid with electrolytes --> conductive to electric flow
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what the ECG/EKG does NOT do |
|
Definition
-does NOT record the movement of ions of individual cells (the electrodes don't insert into the inside of the cells)
-does NOT record action potentials, but results from waves of depolarization
-does NOT record contraction or relaxation, but the electrical events leading to contraction and relaxation |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the stages of the heartbeat and the ECG/EKG reading |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
caused by depolarization of the atria, when the entire mass of atria is depolarized, ECG returns to baseline
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
caused by depolarization of the ventricles; during this time atria repolarize, but the event is hidden by the greater depolarization in ventricles
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
produced by repolarization of the ventricles
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the electrical path for the 1st heart sound |
|
Definition
| QRS wave --> systole (ventricular contraction) --> rise of intraventricular P --> AV valves close (1st heart sound) --> S1 |
|
|
Term
| the electrical path for the 2nd heart sound |
|
Definition
| T wave --> ventricular repolarization --> intraventricular P lower than arterial P --> semilunar valves close (2nd heart sound) --> S2 |
|
|
Term
| the electrical path for the S-T segment |
|
Definition
| AP transmission in ventricle --> plateau phase --> systole |
|
|
Term
| how defective heart valves can lead to heart murmurs |
|
Definition
| congenital defects or infection (rheumatic endocarditis) --> valves damaged |
|
|
Term
| how mitral stenosis can lead to heart murmurs |
|
Definition
mitral valve becomes thickened and calcified
-narrows mitral valve such that it impairs blood flow from left atrium to right ventricle
-accumulation of blood in left atrium may cause pulmonary HTN (hypertension?) |
|
|
Term
| LDL (low density lipoprotein) |
|
Definition
| delivers cholesterol from liver to peripheral tissues, including blood vessel walls |
|
|
Term
| HDL (high density lipoprotein) |
|
Definition
| delivers cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver --> bile --> gut --> feces (eliminates excessive cholesterol from the body) |
|
|
Term
| process by which atherosclerosis forms |
|
Definition
arteroial endothelial cells contain LDL R --> LDL-LDL R --> endocytosis --> oxidized LDL --> ... --> formation of atheroma (localized plaques of fat) --> atherosclerosis --> atherosclerosis --> reduce blood flow --> ↑ clot formation
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| localized plaques of fat that protrude into the lumen of the arteries --> reduce blood flow --> ↑ clot formation |
|
|
Term
| some nutrients that seem to reduce the risk of atherosclerosis |
|
Definition
vit C, E, beta-carotene
-they reduce oxidation of LDL |
|
|
Term
| meaning of the word atherosclerosis |
|
Definition
| sclerosis (hardening) of the artery due to atheromas |
|
|
Term
| why the flow rate in pulmonary and systemic circulation has to be the same |
|
Definition
| so that there's a smooth flow of blood through the big loop (analogous to traffic and traffic jams) |
|
|
Term
| some structural components of the blood vessels |
|
Definition
| -Vascular lumen – hollow portion, allows blood flow -Tunica interna (intima) – endothelium & elastic layer -Tunica media – smooth muscle (more in arteries than in veins) +this means veins have larger lumens -Tunica externa (adventitia) – prevent overstretching -Elastic fibers (elastins) are present in all 3 layers (interna, media & externa) of arteries, mainly in aorta & large arteries [image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Blood pressure (BP) = Force/Area |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how the pressure gradient enables blood flow |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why the pressure for systemic circulation is higher than that for the pulmonary circulation |
|
Definition
| -because the systemic circulation has to pump blood to the brain and the feet -also, the level of the lung is very close to that of the heart, so it doesn't need as high a blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| the difference in blood pressure between the various parts of the circulatory system |
|
Definition
Ventricular contraction generates ΔP → > arterial BP > capillary BP > venular BP > atrial BP
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what happens if the compliance of a blood vessel = 0? |
|
Definition
| can lead to hypertension or breaking of blood vessel or hemorrhage of weak blood vessel, such as stroke |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Connect arterioles & venules
-Gas exchange (O2 & CO2)
-Fluid exchange (blood plasma <--> interstitial fluid)
-The exchange of nutrients, hormones, metabolic wastes etc.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| composition of capillaries |
|
Definition
Smallest blood vessel
-Consist of endothelial cells (endothelium) & basement membrane
-Pores on endothelium
-Do NOT contain smooth muscle
[image]
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the structure of veins and venules differs from that of arteries |
|
Definition
-Thinner walls than arteries
-less smooth muscle
-larger lumen
-contain valves
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Key functions of veins and venules |
|
Definition
| -adjust venous return of blood to right atrium -valves inside veins at low BP (~6 mmHg), prevent back flow, ensuring uni-directional flow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-C.O. or Q is the blood volume pumped per minute by each ventricle (left and right)
-C.O. or Q = cardiac rate x stroke volume |
|
|
Term
| the sequence by which the heart pumps blood out of it |
|
Definition
| Contraction --> ↑ force --> (P = F/A) --> ↑ P --> ↑ ∆P difference (gradient) between 2 ends --> ↑ stroke volume |
|
|
Term
| how to calculate cardiac output (C.O. or Q) |
|
Definition
C.O. or Q (ml/min) = cardiac rate (beats/min) x stroke vol (ml/beat)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the cardiac output and other cardiac details at rest |
|
Definition
-~70 beats/min, stroke vol ~80 ml/beat ~5,600 ml Q /min
-Total blood vol ~ 5,600 ml
-each ventricle pumps the equivalent of the total blood volume each minute |
|
|
Term
| how the cardiac output is affected by other things in the body |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chronotropic (time, frequency) effect |
|
Definition
| autonomic (sym & parasym) on SA node is the main controller of cardiac rate |
|
|
Term
| how the Chronotropic (time, frequency) effect regulates cardiac rate |
|
Definition
-Original rhythm set by SA node (auto-rhythmic cells)
-Symp and parasymp nerve fibers modify rate of spontaneous depolarization and conduction rate on auto-rhythmic cells
+Symp – stimulatory; parasymp – inhibitory
-The actual pace set by SA node depends on the net effect of antagonistic influences of symp + parasymp |
|
|
Term
| what drives the heart rate? |
|
Definition
| Without neuronal influences, SA node will drive heart rate at its spontaneous activity |
|
|
Term
| The activity of autonomic innervation of the heart is coordinated by... |
|
Definition
| cardiac control centers in the medulla oblongata (vital centers) |
|
|
Term
| how the sympathetic (NE & E) part of the ANS controls heart rate |
|
Definition
| ↑ Na+ & Ca2+ channels open --> “+” inotropic effect --> ↑ strength of contraction (contractility) in heart
-↑ rate of firing in SA node
-↑ conduction rate
-↑ strength of contraction
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the parasympathetic (ACh) part of the ANS controls heart rate |
|
Definition
| hyperpolarizes SA node --> allows K+ channels open longer --> “-” inotropic effect in atria, NOT in ventricle
[image] |
|
|
Term
| table summarizing the sympathetic and parasympathetic effects of the ANS on different regions of the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Factors affecting stroke volume |
|
Definition
-contractility (strength of contraction)
-end-diastolic volume (EDV)
-total peripheral resistance (TPR) |
|
|
Term
| end-diastolic volume (EDV) (preload) |
|
Definition
vol of blood in ventricles at the end of diastole (end of relaxation); depends on (proportional to) contractility
-↑ in contractility --> ↑ in stroke vol
-↑ of EDV --> ↑ in stroke vol |
|
|
Term
| total peripheral resistance (TPR) |
|
Definition
frictional resistance or impedance to blood flow in arteries
-↑ of TPR --> ↓ in stroke vol |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
SV / EDV
-normally is 60-70% (about 2/3 of blood out of ventricle each contraction) at rest
-larger fraction during exercise |
|
|
Term
| how contractility is regulated extrinsically |
|
Definition
| Sympathoadrenal system – NE, E --> “+” inotropic effect (more Ca2+ available to sarcomeres) --> ↑ contractility |
|
|
Term
| how contractility is regulated intrinsically (Frank-Starling law of heart) |
|
Definition
-Varying degree of stretching of myocardium by EDV
-↑ EDV --> ↑ in myocardial stretching --> the actin filaments overlap with the myosin only at the edges of the A band --> ↑ # of interactions between actin and myosin --> ↑ in contractility (contracts more forcefully)
-↑ EDV --> ↑ cardiac contractility --> ↑ Q
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Frank-Starling law of heart |
|
Definition
how contractility is regulated intrinsically
-Varying degree of stretching of myocardium by EDV
-↑ EDV --> ↑ in myocardial stretching --> the actin filaments overlap with the myosin only at the edges of the A band --> ↑ # of interactions between actin and myosin --> ↑ in contractility (contracts more forcefully)
-↑ EDV --> ↑ cardiac contractility --> ↑ Q
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how sympathetic NS (NE, E) affects cardiac output (Q) |
|
Definition
-“+” chronotropic effect on cardiac rate (C.R.)
-“+” inotropic effect on contractility (contraction strength) |
|
|
Term
| how parasympathetic NS (ACh) affects cardiac output (Q) |
|
Definition
-“–” chronotropic effect on cardiac rate (C.R.)
-No direct effect on contractility in ventricles |
|
|
Term
| some factors affecting stroke volume |
|
Definition
-End-diastolic volume (EDV)
-total peripheral resistance (TPR)
-contractility (strength of contraction) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Return of blood to heart via veins, driven by venous pressure.
-Veins have thinner walls, hold ~60-70% of blood in the body (capacitance vessels) vs. arteries (resistance vessels) |
|
|
Term
| how venous return (VR) affects end-diastolic volume (EDV) |
|
Definition
they return blood to heart via veins, driven by venous pressure
↑ VR --> ↑ EDV --> (Frank-Starling law of heart) --> ↑ Q |
|
|
Term
| venous return (VR) is affected by... |
|
Definition
-total blood volume
-venous pressure
-breathing
-intrathoracic pressure
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
veins
-they have lots of capacity; they hold about 70% of the blood |
|
|
Term
| why veins have thinner walls than arteries do |
|
Definition
| because veins have a lot less smooth muscle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
arteries
-they have a natural tone caused by the smooth muscle such that the diameter is limited such that they create vascular resistance |
|
|
Term
| venous pressure affected by... |
|
Definition
-↑ Sympathetic activity --> ↑ venous constriction --> ↑ VR
-↑ Skeletal muscle pumps ↑ increase VR
[image]
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how breathing affects venous return |
|
Definition
P difference between the thoracic and abdominal cavities
-During inspiration, ↓ in thoracic P or ↑ in abdominal P --> ↑ P gradient --> ↑ VR |
|
|
Term
| how water is distributed in the body |
|
Definition
about 45 liters in an adult human
-Intracellular compartment – 2/3 of total body H2O
-Extracellular compartment – 1/3 total body H2O – 80% interstitial fluid, 20% blood plasma
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Exchange of fluid between ______, between ______ is in state of dynamic equilibrium |
|
Definition
ICF and ECF
interstitial fluid and blood plasma |
|
|
Term
| Exit of blood plasma into the interstitium at the ______ end of the capillary and mostly returned from the ______ end of the capillary |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hydrostatic pressure of plasma |
|
Definition
-due to heart pumping + gravity
-exerted against capillary wall
-Is the main P drives fluid out --> ↑ formation of interstitial fluid (IF)
-promotes formation of tissue fluid
-net filtration pressure = hydrostatic pressure in capillary (17-37 mmHg)-- hydrostatic pressure of ECF |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how and where fluid goes in and out of the capillaries |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which hydrostatic pressure involving the capillary is higher? that of plasma or that of insterstitial fluid? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Colloid osmotic (oncotic) pressure |
|
Definition
exerted by proteins in fluid
-Colloid osmotic P in blood plasma = 25 mm Hg (high)
-Colloid osmotic P in IF = 0 mm Hg
-Plasma colloid osmotic P is the main P to retain fluid in b.v. |
|
|
Term
| how the movement of fluid occurs during exchange of fluid between capillaries and interstitial fluid |
|
Definition
| Fluid movement = fluid out - fluid in = (Pc + πi) - (Pi + πp) -Pc = hydrostatic P of blood (37 mmHg) -Pi = hydrostatic P of interstitial fluid (IF) (1) -πp = colloid osmotic P of plasma (25) +Promotes fluid re-absorption into circulatory system -πi = colloid osmotic P of IF (0) [image] |
|
|
Term
| how the movement of solutes occurs during exchange of fluid between capillaries and interstitial fluid |
|
Definition
-Glu., salts, ions, etc. are filtered along with water
-Very little plasma proteins is in IF (0 mm Hg)
-At the arteriolar end of capillary: (37+0) - (1+25) = 11 mm Hg
-At the venular end of capillary : (17+0) - (1+25) = -9 mm Hg
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Excess IF returned to venous system by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some ways proper ECF levels are maintained |
|
Definition
| filtration, osmotic reuptake, and lymphatic drainage maintain proper ECF levels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| excessive accumulation of tissue fluid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -High arterial blood pressure (hydrostatic pressure of blood, pushing more fluid out of capillaries) -Venous obstruction (may cause more fluid to exit capillaries) -Decreased plasma proteins (liver or kidney diseases) --> ↓ colloid osmotic pressure of blood plasma -Leakage of plasma proteins into tissue fluid (↑ πi) -Obstruction of lymphatic drainage -Myxedema due to hypothyroidism (production of mucin in interstitial fluid, an inflammatory status) |
|
|
Term
| the most important organ for regulating body fluid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Volume of urine excreted can be adjusted according to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some hormones that regulate urination |
|
Definition
| -Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin; can increase blood pressure)
-Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS) system
+Aldosterone – ↑ retention of Na+ (main) & water --> ↑ blood volume
-Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP, ANH) |
|
|
Term
| how the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAAS) system affects urination |
|
Definition
| Aldosterone – ↑ retention of Na+ (main) & water --> ↑ blood volume |
|
|
Term
| how ADH is involved in regulating blood volume |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how dehydration causes thirst |
|
Definition
Dehydration --> ↑ blood plasma osmolality --> activate osmoreceptors in hypothalamus:
-↑ Secretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin) from posterior pituitary --> ↑ retention of water by kidney --> ↓ blood plasma osmolality and ↑ maintain the blood volume |
|
|
Term
| ADH release is inhibited by... |
|
Definition
`low blood plasma osmolality
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAA) system regulates blood volume |
|
Definition
| -↓ in blood flow through the kidneys --> ↑ renin secretion --> activates the RAS system --> ... --> ↑ angiotensin II -Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor -↑ Angiotensin II --> ↑ aldosterone -Stimulates thirst [image] |
|
|
Term
| how aldosterone regulates blood volume |
|
Definition
| -A steroid H secreted by adrenal cortex
-Release stimulated by salt deprivation, low blood volume, low BP
-↑ Retention of Na+ & water --> indirectly ↑ blood volume
-Does not alter plasma osmolality |
|
|
Term
| how the atrium functions as an endocrine tissue |
|
Definition
↑ Blood volume --> detected by stretch receptors in left atrium --> ↑ release of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the effect of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) on blood volume |
|
Definition
-↓ Aldosterone secretion --> ↑ salt and water excretion from urine --> ↑ blood volume, called natriuresis (increased Na+ excretion)
-↑ Vasodilation --> ↑ fluid flow from blood to interstitium --> ↓ blood volume
[image] |
|
|
Term
| meaning of the word natriuresis |
|
Definition
| "Natri" means sodium. "Uresis" means increased urine volume |
|
|
Term
| how atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) work together to regulate blood volume |
|
Definition
↑ ANP together with ↓ ADH --> acts in a negative feedback system --> ↓ blood volume
[image] |
|
|
Term
| general overview of what regulates blood volume and cardiac output and such |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 2 factors affecting cardiac output |
|
Definition
-stroke volume
-cardiac rate |
|
|
Term
| ______ determines how much blood flows through a tissue or organ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Vasodilation --> ↓ vascular resistance --> ↑ blood flow |
|
|
Term
| effects of vasoconstriction |
|
Definition
| Vasoconstriction --> ↑ vascular resistance --> ↓ blood flow |
|
|
Term
| the flow of blood through the vascular system is due to... |
|
Definition
| the pressure gradient at the 2 ends (ΔP) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| vascular resistance ∝ Lη / r4
BF ∝ ΔP / R
L = length of vessel
η = viscosity of blood (anemia → ↓ η)
r = radius of vessel (mm), vasoconstriction vs. vasodilation
BF = blood flow
P = pressure
R = resistance |
|
|
Term
| how the sympathetic nervous system (main regulator) affects blood flow |
|
Definition
| ↑ Q (C.O.) & ↑ total peripheral resistance (TPR) -α-Adrenergic stimulation --> vasoconstriction (the dominant sympathetic effect in the body) -Cholinergic sympathetic & β-adrenergic stimulation – vasodilation of skeletal muscles (fight or flight, minor effect) -Overall (combined α- & β- adrenergic) --> ↑ TPR -Exercise or anger --> ↑ TPR but ↑ cardiac inotropy & chronotropy --> ↑ SV --> ↑ Q |
|
|
Term
| how the parasympathetic nervous system (rest and digest/repair) affects blood flow |
|
Definition
-Vasodilation in GI, salivary gland & external genitalia
-only minor effect on TPR |
|
|
Term
| how the endocrine system regulates blood flow |
|
Definition
-Angiotensin II – vasoconstriction
-ADH (functions as vasopressin at high concentration) – vasoconstriction |
|
|
Term
| how paracrine regulation regulates blood flow |
|
Definition
| the endothelium secretes the vasoconstrictor endothelin-1 and the vasodilator NO |
|
|
Term
| Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) |
|
Definition
produces NO from L-arginine
-present in arteries |
|
|
Term
| how NO is made and used for vasodilation |
|
Definition
| -Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) of arteries produces NO from L-arginine
-NO diffuses to vascular smooth muscles --> activates guanylate cyclase --> ↑ cGMP --> ↓ cytoplasmic [Ca+2] --> smooth muscle relaxation --> vasodilation
-Binds to hemoglobin in RBC --> released to tissues with low PO2 --> vasodilation
-Medicine to treat angina pectoris (eg. nitroglycerin) --> convert to NO |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lack of oxygen to a certain area, possibly pectoralis, due to insufficient blood flow |
|
|
Term
| the 2 types of intrinsic regulation of blood flow |
|
Definition
-myogenic control
-metabolic control |
|
|
Term
| Myogenic control of blood flow |
|
Definition
-autoregulation allows constant cerebral blood flow
-↓ in systemic arterial P --> vasodilation of cerebral vessels
-↑ in systemic arterial pressure --> vasoconstriction of cerebral vessels --> protect finer vessels downstream from the elevated P; this protects against stroke
[image]
MAP = mean arterial blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| Metabolic control of blood flow |
|
Definition
| -local effects on cerebral & skeletal muscle vessels
-↑ in metabolic activities --> ↓ O2 --> vasodilation
-↑ in metabolic activities --> ↑ CO2 --> vasodilation
-↑ in metabolic activities --> ↓ pH due to CO2, lactate --> vasodilation
-Release of adenosine or K+ from the tissue cells --> vasodilation
-in summary, this seems to be where the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide determine the amounts of blood flow needed
[image]
MAP = mean arterial blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| the pressure and area for different vessel types in the circulatory system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| capillaries are narrow, but their blood pressure is reduced because of... |
|
Definition
| the total cross-sectional area |
|
|
Term
| why arterioles tend to have the highest vascular resistance |
|
Definition
| Arterioles are rich in smooth muscle --> the smallest diameter --> the greatest resistance |
|
|
Term
| how kidneys regulate blood pressure |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the sympathetic nervous system / sympathoadrenal system regulates blood pressure |
|
Definition
| by epinephrine and norepinephrine as neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stretch receptors in aortic arch and carotid sinuses that detect BP change
-More sensitive to ↓ in BP and sudden changes in BP
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the baroreceptor reflex regulates blood pressure baroceptor reflex |
|
Definition
| -More sensitive to ↓ in BP and sudden changes in BP -example: A change from lying to upright posture --> ↓ BP --> detected by baroreceptors in aortic arch & carotid sinus --> info sent to medulla --> ↓ parasympathetic and ↑ sympathetic activities --> vasoconstriction and ↑ cardiac rate --> ↑ BP [image] |
|
|
Term
| 2 types of reflexes that regulate blood pressure |
|
Definition
-baroceptor reflex
-atrial stretch reflex |
|
|
Term
| how the atrial stretch reflex regulates blood pressure |
|
Definition
when ↑ venous return -->
-pathway 1: Thru vagus nerve --> posterior pituitary --> ↓ ADH secretion --> ↑ urine vol --> ↓ blood vol --> ↓ BP
-pathway 2 (the pathway illustrated below): ↓ Renin --> ↓ angiotensin II --> natriuresis --> ↑ urine vol --> ↓ blood vol --> ↓ BP
-Stimulates ↑ atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) secretion --> natriuresis --> ↑ urine vol --> ↓ blood vol --> ↓ BP
-↑ ANP secretion --> vasodilation --> ↓ TPR --> ↓ BP
[image] |
|
|
Term
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Definition
device that goes around your arm to measure blood pressure
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Term
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Definition
| flow of blood through vessels that are not compressed |
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Term
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Definition
| sound blood makes in turbulent flow through compressed brachial artery |
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Term
| how blood pressure is measured with a sphygmonometer |
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Definition
-A P cuff is inflated, then deflated slowly
-The first sound of Korotkoff, caused by a constriction in the artery, occurs when the cuff P equals the systolic P. This is the systolic blood pressure.
-The last sound of Korotkoff is heard when the cuff P equals the diastolic ABP. This is the diastolic blood pressure.
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Term
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Definition
| Pulse pressure = systolic P – diastolic P |
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Term
| mean arterial (blood) pressure |
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Definition
-Mean ABP = diastolic P + 1/3 pulse P
-Represents the average arterial pressure during the cardiac cycle
-(Mean ABP – VBP) is the force to drive blood through capillary beds of organs |
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Term
| why mean ABP = diastolic P + 1/3 pulse P |
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Definition
| because diastole accounts for about 0.5 seconds and systole accounts for about 0.3 seconds |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| some things that may cause high blood pressure |
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Definition
-increased blood volume
-increased cardiac output
-increased total peripheral resistance
-diseases |
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Term
| some dangers of hypertension |
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Definition
-cerebral stroke
-atherosclerosis (due to too much friction in blood vessels)
-↑ cardiac workload |
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Term
| some treatments for hypertension |
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Definition
| -angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors (reduce vasoconstriction)
-β-blockers
-Ca2+ channel blockers (reduce contractility of heart)
-diuretics (increased urine volume) |
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Term
| why angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors can be used to lower blood pressure |
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Definition
because ACE converts inactive angiotensin I into active angiotensin II, which causes vasoconstriction
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Term
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Definition
| caused by sudden blood loss
-low blood volume --> low blood pressure --> inadequate delivery of blood/O2 to organs --> cannot be compensated --> progress to an irreversible state |
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