Rule based system that relates sounds (or gestures to meaning)

Phonology

the sounds of a language 

about 200 total sounds used in all known spoken languages

English uses about 45

Semantics

study of words and their meaning

over half a million words, avg college educated student knows 150,000

Syntax

Rules for how to combine words to make sentences

(ex: noun followed by verb)

Pragmatics

 rules for effective communication

communicative functions of language and rules that make it effective….ex keep comments relevant to the current convo

Phonemes

smallest unit of language, unique sounds joined to form words

Can distinguish most phonemes around 1 month after birth

Up to 8 months can distinguish phonemes not used in their native language

Infant-directed speech

Slowly, exaggerated changes in pitch and loudness

Attracts attention, makes changes more salient with pitch

This also applies to how we talk to our pets

Vowel like sounds, like oooo and ahhhh

Babbling

Vowel and consonant combinations that are speech-like, but not words

Precursor to language—right side of mouth

8-11 months express intonation (inflection) in babbling

Influenced by speech they hear and understanding how to use lips, tongue, teeth

Before naming, often point at an object

Toddlers who use more advanced gestures tend to have more complex spoken language in preschool

Children begin to gesture shortly before their first birthday

At 18 months old they learn new words (mostly objects) much more rapidly than they did before

They learn about 10 words per week

Joint attention

Saying a word while pointing to it 

Ex: saying book, pointing to a book

kids more likely to assume something is a name when looking/pointing at it while labeling

Kids can learn without this!!! but this makes it easier 

The word before the word in question 

A boz, she boz

A boz — would be a thing

She box — would be a noun

Boz isn’t a word but we can figure out if it’s a noun or verb based on the word in front of it 

18 mo normal differences between 25-250 words

Minor heredity difference 

Phonological memory

remembering speech sounds briefly

Strongly related to vocabulary size 

saying a nonsense word, ballop, and having a kid repeat it immediately 

Language environment 

More words, better vocabulary 

Prompt and appropriate parental responses

At what point do we realize it’s a picture versus something we can grab or a teleportation?

Non-literal language & kids

Non-literal language takes longer to understand 

By age ?? can realize a message is vague or confusing

Words or endings of words that make a sentence grammatical (ed, s, es) 

Adding normal grammar rules to words even if they don't follow that rule

Ex: Two mans, 4 foots 

Words directly relevant to meaning 

Agent + action, action + object

1 year 

Functional approach of emotions

Emotions help people adapt to their environment, shape behavior, are adaptive

When someone you dont know that is there, you will look away or look on your phone. Kids will do this too. If a stranger walks in they will look away or grab onto their parents.

Basic emotions

Universal, consists of a subjective feeling, physiological change, and an overt behavior

Self-conscious emotions

18-24 months 

Involves meeting/failing to meet expectations

Ex: pride, guilt, embarrassment. 

Depends on understanding of self

Cultural Differences of emotions/expressions

European American at 11months cried more and smiles more than Chinese children of this age

 social referencing 

Facial cues for emotions are better recognized throughout childhood and adolescence 

Adults are better at telling when someone is “faking” an emotion

temperament

Behavioral styles that are fairly stable across situations and are biologically based

some babies are easier to calm, cry much more often, more quiet/loud

In US, Mom’s are usually the primary attachment figure

Developed nations: Fathers spend less time caregiving more time playing 

Kids like playing with fathers more, but go to mother when distressed

Secure attachment -- May cry when mom leaves, wants to be with mom when returns,  60-65% of US babies

Avoidant attachment -- Not visibly upset when mom leaves, may ignore her upon return, 20% of US babies

Resistant attachment -- Upset when Mom leaves, upset/angry upon return, 10-15% of US babies

Disorganized attachment -- Confused when Mom leaves, doesn’t understand what’s happening upon return, dazed, 5-10% of US babies

Upset when Mom leaves, upset/angry upon return, 10-15% of US babies

Avoidant Attachment 

Not visibly upset when mom leaves, may ignore her upon return, 20% of US babies

May cry when mom leaves, wants to be with mom when returns,  60-65% of US babies

Worldwide = 55-70%

Modern Attachment Theory

Parents have their own internal working models

Display rules of emotions

Control anger better with peers they like

Learn from Parents; talking, hearing parents talk

Positive, rewarding relationship with parents/siblings related to better understanding of emotions

related to more frequent conflict, less satisfying peer relationships, less adaptive adjustment to school

Depends on cognitive processes

Develops gradually and gets better with time

Infants and toddlers rely on simple strategies (looking away, moving closer to caregiver)

School age/adolescents use cognitive strategies (“I didn’t want that anyway”; Reframing a negative to a positive)

Rooted in biology

Identical twins are more temperamentally similar

Impact of heredity increased with age 

Linked to some genes/neurotransmitters……but findings are inconsistent 

1. Parental behavior - Kids are less emotional when parents are responsive

2. Environment can amplify genetic influences - Grumpy kids more likely to elicit harsh parenting 

3. Genes can make some kids more/less responsive to the environment  - Variant of a DRD4 gene more responsive to both good and bad

Two Answers: 

1. Direct -- Temperament provides path to personality traits

2. Indirect -- Temperament shapes early environment which shapes personality development

Evolutionary Psychology of attachment 

Children who form an attachment are more likely to survive (John Bowlby)

Ex: Harlow's studies with monkey's that we saw in class

Enduring socio-emotional relationship with an adult

Usually happens between 8-9 months

Preattachment: 6-8 weeks; Rapidly recognize mom by smell/sound

Use behaviors to elicit caregiving 

Attachment in the making: 6-8wks-6-8mo; Smile/laugh more often around primary caregiver

More easily consoled by caregiver

True Attachment: 6-8wks-6-8mo; Single out attachment figure as stable base; Attachment relationship established; Mental representation of figure

Reciprocal Relationships: > 18 mo; Can be partner in relationship; Talk, think, understand feelings

Self-concept/ Sense of sense

Attitudes, values, behaviors that a person believes makes them a unique individual

In infancy children only realize they have body parts and exist

elementary school can project self into future

1 year olds touch red mark on mirror

15-18 months children touch red mark own their own face

5-7 years old sense of self

Children mention emotions, social groups, competencies in relation to peers

Adolescents self-concepts

future oriented, occupational goals, education plans, social roles, personality traits, attitude

Increasingly self-reflective, looking for identity 

Toddlers/Preschoolers self-concept

use physical characteristics, preferences, possessions, and competencies

Adolescent egocentrism

Self-absorption that marks teenage search for identity 

Personal Fable-Own feelings/experiences are unique, no one has ever felt this way

Personal Fable

Imaginary Audience

Adolescents fee that they actors in a performance constantly being watched by peers

Illusion of Invulnerability

Misfortune only happens to others

Marcia's Identity Status 

1. Diffusion -- Confused or overwhelmed by the task of achieving an identity, doing little to achieve one

2. Foreclosure -- Identity determined by adults instead of personal exploration

3. Moratorium --Still exploring alternatives but do not currently have a satisfactory identity 

4. Achievement --Explored alternatives, have deliberately chosen a specific Identity 

Identity Processing Style (Berzonsky)

1. Informational -- Seek out and evaluate identity relevant info before committing to a decision. High levels of cognitive complexity, problem focused coping, empathetic, open to new info, will revise. 

2. Normative -- Rely on norms and expectations of others, Family, religion, nationality important, self-control, low tolerance for ambiguity, rely on cognitive biases

3. Diffuse Avoidant -- Avoid personal issues, procrastinate until absolutely necessary, low levels of active info processing, self-handicapping, impulsivity, reputation/popularity

If encourage discussion, recognize autonomy, more likely to reach identity achievement

If set rules with little justification, enforce without explanation, likely to remain in foreclosure 

Close friends who they trust, feel more secure exploring alternatives

Broader social context, access to resources

Feeling that one is a part of an ethnic group and the understanding of special customs and traditions of the groups culture and heritage

More likely in older adolescents (more opportunity)

Most likely when parents encourage and prepare kids for possible discrimination 

Conflicts arise when parents strongly identify with ethnic culture, but children identify with the new culture

U.S. biracial adolescents who identify as white have less self-esteem and less successful in school 

Have not examined their ethnic roots

Begin to explore impact of ethnic heritage 

Achieve distinct ethnic self-concept

Is a strong ethnic identity a good thing? 

Tend to have greater self-esteem, family and friend interactions more, satisfying, happier, worry less, less affected by discrimination and maintain self worth after experiencing racial or ethnic discrimination. 

5-15% of adolescents are depressed, girls more often than boys

Social challenges are often greater for girls

Depression prone adolescents are more likely to blame themselves for failure 

Parents (Emotionally distant, uninvolved, cruel, economic/marital stressors)

Heredity (difference neurotransmitter levels)

Treatment (antidepressants, therapy)

Risk prevention programs

A person’s judgement and feelings of his or her self-worth

Can measure at age 4-5

Becomes more complex over time

Overall self-esteem isn’t just average, different domains have different values 

Self-esteem is highest in preschool 

Self-esteem is highest in preschool 

Decrease in elementary school years bc they are comparing themselves to peers

Self-Esteem & Ethnicity

Elementary school- European Americans have greater self-esteem than Hispanic and African American children. Asian American children have greater self-esteem than European Americans. 

Adolescence-Gap narrows between Hispanic and European Americans, African Americans surpass both. Asian Americans self-esteem have less than European Americans here. 

Heredity -- Better genes so do better (sports, looks, etc.) and have higher self-worth

Parents -- affectionate, involved parents = better self worth 

Peer -- children have high self-worth when peers think highly of them 

More likely to have:

- Problems with peers

- Drpression

- Involved in bullying, aggressive behavior, criminal activity

- Do poorly in school 

Does low self-esteem cause depression or vise versa??

Narcissistic

Grandiose view of themselves, better than others, relish attention and compliments

Prone to aggression and entitlement 

Depression when self-worth at odds with reality

Too much self esteem 

Describing Others 

As with self-descriptions -- Move from concrete to abstract descriptions (by 16)

Before 10 years old children are biased towards positive descriptions (Will believe someone is smart with little evidence, require a lot of evidence to call someone mean)

Selman’s stages of perspective taking

Undifferentiated

Social-informational

Self-reflective

Third-person

Societal 

Prejudice 

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

In preschool Can identify males/females, different racial groups, likes own group better