Term
| Nervous system of Insects |
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Definition
| brain has several subdivisions with separate functions |
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Term
| With increasing complexity, overall trend toward cephalization |
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Definition
| increasingly complex brain in anterior region |
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Term
| vertebrate nervous system |
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Definition
| Central Nervous System (CNS), Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), & Anatomical Structures in the CNS & PNS |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Peripheral Nervous System |
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Definition
| neurons & axons of neurons outside the CNS (ganglia & peripheral nerves) |
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Term
| anatomical structures in the CNS & PNS |
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Definition
| nucleus, ganglion, tract, & nerves |
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Term
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Definition
| cluster of cell bodies of neurons involved in a similar function in the CNS |
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Term
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Definition
| cluster of neuron cell bodies in PNS involved in a similar function |
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Term
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Definition
| myelinated axons that run in parallel bundles in the CNS |
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Term
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Definition
| myelinated axons that run in parallel bundles in the PNS |
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Term
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Definition
| connected directly to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| run from various locations in the body to the spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
| incoming stimuli (chemical or physical stimuli from an animal's body or the external environment) are converted into neural signals |
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Term
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Definition
| conscious awareness of sensation; not all sensations are consciously perceived by an organism |
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Term
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Definition
| recognizes stimulus & initiates signal transduction by creating graded potentials in the same or adjacent cells; either neurons or specialized epithelial cells; when the response is strong enough, an action potential is sent to the CNS |
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Term
| Intensity of Sensory Stimuli |
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Definition
1. Amount of cell membrane depolarization directly related to intensity of stimulus (graded potential)
2. Membrane potential = Receptor potential
3. When a stimulus is strong enough, it will depolarize the membrane to the threshold potential & produce an action potential in a sensory neuron
4. Strength of the stimulus is indicated by the frequency of action potentials generated--strong stimulus generates more action potentials in a shorter amount of time
5. Brain interprets higher frequency of action potentials as a more intense stimulus
6. Different stimuli produce different sensations, respond because they activate specific neural pathways that are dedicated to processing only that type of stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| Transduce mechanical energy |
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Term
| Electromagnetic Receptors |
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Definition
| Detect radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum |
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Term
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Definition
| respond to visible light energy; electromagnetic receptor |
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Term
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Definition
| respond to cold & heat; electromagnetic receptor |
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Term
| Infared, Ultraviolet Receptors, & Magnetic Fields |
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Definition
| electromagnetic receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| respond to specific chemicals |
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Term
| Nociceptors, or pain receptors |
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Definition
| respond to extremes of heat, cold, & pressure, as well as to certain molecules such as acids; receptors with intense stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
physically touching or deforming a mechanoreceptor opens ion channels in the plasma membrane: mechano-sensory proteins within the membrane
some mechanoreceptors are neurons & others are specialized epithelial cells |
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Term
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Definition
example of mechanoreceptors
1. stretching alters proteins in cell membrane, causing ion channels, & causing membrane to depolarize
2. action potentials initiated, sent to the CNS |
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Term
| Examples of stretch receptors |
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Definition
1. stretching of stomach wall is interpreted as fullness
2. stretching in blood vessels provides blood pressure info |
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Term
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Definition
example of mechanoreceptor
specialized epithelial cells |
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Term
| deformable cilia resemble hairs |
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Definition
1. Ion channels open or close when cilia bend which changes membrane potential--frequency: influenced by the direction of bending
2. Membrane potential changes in hair cells, influence the fusion of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles
Neurotransmitters can trigger action potentials to
adjacent neurons
3. Found in the vertebrate ear & equilibrium organs, body surface of fish & some amphibians |
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Term
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Definition
| mechanosensory system; Meissner's corpuscles & Pacinian corpuscles |
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Term
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Definition
sense touch & light pressure
lie just beneath skin surface
specialized dendritic branch |
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Term
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Definition
located much deeper beneath the surface
respond to deep pressure & vibration
specialized dendritic branch |
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Term
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Definition
| mechanosensory systems; hair cells that detect changes in water currents; cilia of hair cells protrude into cupula structure within lateral line canal system; when cupula moves, cilia bend, & neurotransmitter released |
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Term
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Definition
mechanosensory system
Overview:
1. ability to detect & interpret sound waves
2. wavelength
3. frequency
4. short wavelengths have high frequencies perceived as high pitch or tone
5. long wavelengths have lower frequencies perceived as a lower pitch |
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Term
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Definition
| distance from the peak of one sound wave to the next |
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Term
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Definition
| number of complete waves in a second (Hz) |
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Term
| 3 main compartments of Mammalian Ear |
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Definition
1. Outer ear
2. Middle ear
3. Inner ear |
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Term
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Definition
| pinna & auditory canal: separated from middle ear by eardrum |
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Term
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Definition
| ossicles (maileus, incus, stapes) connect eardrum to oval window |
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Term
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Definition
| cochlea (audition) & vestibular system (equilibrium, balance, proprioception) |
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Term
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Definition
| located in inner ear; connects to pharynx; equalizes pressure between middle ear & atmospheric pressure |
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Term
| Movement of sound waves through the ear |
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Definition
1. sound waves enter the outer ear
2. tympanic membrane vibrates back & forth
3. ossicles transfer vibration to oval window
4. sends pressure waves through cochlea
5. waves travel from vestibular canal to tympanic canal & dissipate against round window
6. higher frequency sounds we hear pass through basilar membrane making it vibrate |
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Term
| Transduction of sound waves in the Organ of Corti |
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Definition
1. Mechanical forces transduced into electrical signals by Organ of Corti
2. Hairs bending in one direction triggers neurotransmitter release
3. Action potentials triggered in dendrites of neurons of the auditory nerve
4. Frequency of action potentials determined by up-and-down vibration of basilar membrane |
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Term
| Equilibrium or Proprioception |
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Definition
1. Ability to sense the position, orientation, & movement of the body
2. Many aquatic invertebrates have statocysts to send positional information: small, round chambers |
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Term
| Vestibular system in vertebrates |
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Definition
1. Located in inner ear next to cochlea
2. Utricle & saccule detect linear movements of the head
3. Semicircular canals detect motion in 3D |
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Term
| Utricle & saccule detect linear movements of the head |
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Definition
1. When head moves, inertia causes calcium-carbonate otoliths (which are embedded in gelatin substance to lag behind & bend cilia changing the membrane potential)
2. Utricle senses horizontal movements
3. Saccule senses vertical movements |
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Term
| Semicircular canals detect motion in 3D |
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Definition
1. Hair cells embedded in gelatinous cupula
2. When head moves, fluid in the canal shift in the opposite direction pushing on cupula & bending hair cilia
3. Each canal oriented in one of 3 planes |
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Term
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Definition
| detection of radiation within a wide range of the electromagnetic spectrum, including those wavelengths that correspond to visible light, UV light, & infared light, as well as electrical & magnetic stimuli |
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Term
| Electromagnetic sensing examples |
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Definition
non-light systems:
1. Fish detect electrical signals from other fish
2. Platypus bill can detect electrical currents from prey
3. Homing pigeons use magnetite to accurately navigate
4. Pit vipers sense infared radiation (heat) from prey |
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Term
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Definition
1. Photoreceptors detect photons of light arriving from the sun or other light source, or reflecting off an object
2. Photon-fundamental unit of electromagnetic radiation with the properties of both a particle & a wave |
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Term
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Definition
1. simple visual organ
2. eyecup containing endings of photoreceptor cells detects pressure or absence of light
3. layer of pigment casts shadows, so can detect direction of light
4. does not form visual images |
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Term
| compound eyes of arthropods (& some annelids) |
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Definition
1. Many light detectors called ommatidia
2. Each light detection unit makes up one facet
3. Lens & crystalline cone focus light onto rhabdom
4. Retinula cells surrounding the rhabdom serve as photoreceptors
5. Pigment cells surround the rhabdom & retinula cells, keep light from one ommatidia from leaking to adjacent ommatidia
6. Extremely sensitive to movement, but less resolving power than single-lens eye |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| have eyespots on the tips of their arms; eyespots allow the organism to detect light & direction of light |
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Term
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Definition
1. Found in vertebrates, some mollusks (squid & octopus), & in some snails & annelids
2. Light transmitted through pupil to retina at the back of the eye
3. Photoreceptors trigger electrical changes in neurons
4. Sclera
5. Cornea
6. Iris |
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Term
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Definition
| strong outer connective tissue sheath |
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Term
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Definition
| continuous with sclera but thin & clear |
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Term
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Definition
| pigmented smooth muscle controlling size of pupil |
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Term
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Definition
1. Receptor cell in the human eye
2. sensitive to low intensity light
3. do not discriminate colors
4. used mostly at night |
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Term
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Definition
1. a modified type of neuron
2. outer segment contains pigment
3. inner segment contains nucleus & other organelles
4. synaptic terminal |
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Term
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Definition
| neurotransmitter filled vesicles fuse with membrane |
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Term
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Definition
1. Receptor cells in the human eye
2. require more light for stimulation
3. detect color
4. fewer cones than rods in human retina |
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Term
| Complex of opsin protein in a complex with retinal |
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Definition
| Retinal & several types of Opsin |
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Term
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Definition
| vitamin A derivative that absorbs light energy |
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Term
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Definition
| type of opsin that is a rod pigment |
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Term
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Definition
| type of opsin: humans have 3 (red, green, blue) distinct photopsins, some species have less, birds have 5 |
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Term
| Photons alter visual pigments |
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Definition
1. Photoreceptors differ from other sensory receptor cells because their membrane potential is in a slightly depolarized state (slightly positive membrane potential) when the cell is at rest
2. Depolarization in unstimulated state results in continuous release of glutamate
3. When exposed to light, retinal is altered
4. Opsin changes shape, intracellular signal is transmitted, resulting in membrane potential becoming hyperpolarization
5. Hyperpolarization is proportional to the intensity of light |
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Term
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Definition
1. Olfaction
2. Gustation
3. Chemicals bind to chemoreceptor cells, initiating signals that cause release of neurotransmitters from the chemoreceptor cell
4. Neurotransmitters initiate electrical responses in neurons that extend axons into the brain |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Olfaction in mammals (chemoreception example) |
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Definition
1. Olfactory sensitivity on mammals is highly variable
2. Olfactory receptors have long cilia with specific receptors to bind odor molecules
3. Binding of chemical ligand results in action potentials being sent to olfactory bulb at the base of the brain
4. Overall smell sensation depends upon which set of olfactory receptor cells are activated. |
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Term
| Olfactory sensitivity on mammals is highly variable |
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Definition
| Depends on the density of olfactory receptor cells (5 million in humans v. 220 million in dogs) |
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Term
| Olfactory receptors have long cilia with specific receptors to bind odor molecules |
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Definition
| Only one type of odor receptor expressed per olfactory receptor cell |
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Term
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Definition
1. clusters of chemosensory cells that detect particular molecules in food molecules dissolved in saliva
2. located in folds of tongue papillae
3. tips of sensory receptor cells in taste bud have microvilli that extend into taste pore |
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Term
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Definition
| structure or structures that serve one or more functions related to support, protection, & locomotion |
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Term
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Definition
1. hydrostatic
2. exoskeleton
3. endoskeleton |
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Term
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Definition
1. water-filled cavity surrounded by muscle
2. water is nearly incompressible, so hydrostatic pressure can be used to extend parts of the body |
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Term
| Hydrostatic skeletons in Cnidarians |
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Definition
| body, tentacles can elongate or shorten |
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Term
| Hydrostatic skeletons in Echinoderms |
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Definition
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Term
| Hydrostatic skeletons in Earthworms |
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Definition
| move forward by passing a wave of muscular contractions along the length of the body: circular muscles squeeze & elongate while longitudinal |
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Term
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Definition
1. external skeleton surrounding & protecting body
2. vary in complexity, thickness, & durability
3. Arthropods
4. Interior muscles connected to exoskeleton components for movement |
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Term
| Exoskeletons in Arthropods |
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Definition
| made of chitin, segmented for movement, must be shed to grow |
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Term
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Definition
1. internal structures
2. do not protect body surface, only internal organs & other structures |
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Term
| Examples of Endoskeletons |
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Definition
| sponges (spicules), echinoderms (ossicles), & vertebrates |
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Term
| 2 parts of vertebrate skeleton |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| main longitudinal axis (skull, spinal column, ribs) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Joints of vertebrate skeleton |
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Definition
| formed where 2 or more bones come together |
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Term
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Definition
1. Pivot joints
2. Hinge joints
3. Ball-and-socket joint |
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Term
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Definition
| neck bone--rotational movement |
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Term
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Definition
| elbow & knee--movement in one plane |
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Term
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Definition
| hip joint--movement in several planes |
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Term
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Definition
1. Muscle is a grouping of contractile cells (muscle fibers) bound together by connective tissue
2. Tendons link bones to skeletal muscle
3. Muscles, bones, & joints arranged in lever systems
4. Skeletal muscle tissue organization |
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Term
| Muscles, bones, & joints arranged in lever system |
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Definition
1. lever system amplifies the velocity of muscle shortening
2. short, relatively slow movements of a muscle produces faster movements of the hand |
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Term
| Skeletal muscle tissue organization |
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Definition
1. Skeletal muscle cells (muscle fibers) contain many parallel-arranged long protein fibers (myofibrils) along their length
2. Muscle cells are packaged in parallel into muscle bundles
3. A group of muscle bundles forms a muscle |
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Term
| Each myofibril composed of a series of sarcomere unites |
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Definition
1. contractile
2. composed of interdigitated protein fibers |
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Term
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Definition
1. skeletal muscle is a type of striated muscle
2. striated muscle named for striped microscopic pattern of myofibrils
3. striated pattern reveals functional structure of contractile filaments and sarcomeres
4. sarcomeres are composed of interdigitating thick & thin filaments |
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Term
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Definition
1. skeletal muscle is a type of striated muscle
2. striated muscle named for striped microscopic pattern of myofibrils
3. striated pattern reveals functional structure of contractile filaments and sarcomeres
4. sarcomeres are composed of interdigitating thick & thin filaments |
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Term
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Definition
| made of myosin protein--actively allow for contraction |
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Term
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Definition
| made of myosin protein--actively allow for contraction |
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Term
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Definition
| contain actin, troponin, & tropomyosin |
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Term
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Definition
| contain actin, troponin, & tropomyosin |
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Term
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Definition
1. Junction of motor neuron's axon & muscle fiber
2. Axon branches into terminals
3. Region of muscle fiber under axon terminal is folded into junctional folds to increase surface area
4. ACh receptor is ligand-gated ion channel
5. Na+ flows into muscle cell leading to depolarization & an action potential |
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Term
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Definition
1. Junction of motor neuron's axon & muscle fiber
2. Axon branches into terminals
3. Region of muscle fiber under axon terminal is folded into junctional folds to increase surface area
4. ACh receptor is ligand-gated ion channel
5. Na+ flows into muscle cell leading to depolarization & an action potential |
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Term
| Axon branches into terminals |
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Definition
| terminals have stored vesicles containing neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) |
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Term
| Axon branches into terminals |
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Definition
| terminals have stored vesicles containing neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) |
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Term
| Region of muscle fiber under axon terminal is folded into junctional folds to increase surface area |
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Definition
| allows for there to be more acetylcholine receptors |
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Term
| Region of muscle fiber under axon terminal is folded into junctional folds to increase surface area |
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Definition
| allows for there to be more acetylcholine receptors |
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Term
| Excitation-contraction coupling |
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Definition
1. Action potentials transmitted in muscle membrane trigger a rise in cytosilic Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
2. Triggers contraction
3. Ion pumps will return calcium to the sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing muscle to relax again |
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Term
| Action potentials transmitted in muscle membrane trigger a rise in cytosilic Ca2+ released form sarcoplasmic reticulum |
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Definition
| Transverse or T-tubules are invaginations of plasma membrane that conduct the action potential from the outer surface to inner regions |
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Term
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Definition
| endoplasmic reticulum is a specialized form |
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Term
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Definition
1. Some organisms are small enough that dissolved substances are able to diffuse in & out of their bodies--no transport system needed for efficient exchange
2. Primary function of circulatory systems is to transport necessary materials (O2, nutrients) to all the cells of an animal's body, & to transport waste products away from the cells where they can be released into the environment |
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Term
| 2 Basic types of transport/exchange systems |
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Definition
1. Gastrovascular cavities
2. Circulatory systems |
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Term
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Definition
1. Body cavity with a single opening to the outside
2. Cnidarians (jellyfish & hydras)
3. All of the animal's body cells are located near the cavity or slender extensions from it (tissue around outside)
4. Muscular efforts of the body wall cause movement of fluid increasing efficiency of exchange |
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Term
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Definition
1. Transport fluid
2. Blood vessels
3. One or more pumps |
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Term
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Definition
1. Found in arthropods & some mollusks
2. Vessels connected to heart(s) (tubular) open into animal's body cavity
3. Fluid in vessels & interstitial fluid are the same
4. Nutrients & metabolic waste exchange by diffusion--between hemolymph--and body cells
5. In insects, no oxygen carrying pigments
6. Tracheal system is used for gas exchange |
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Term
| Limitation for Open Circulatory System |
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Definition
| hemolymph cannot be selectively directed to different tissues/areas of the body |
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Term
| Closed Circulatory System |
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Definition
1. Blood & interstitial fluid are physically separated, only certain components exchanged between the two
2. Allows larger, more active animals higher to more efficiently pump blood to all body cells under high pressure
3. Found in annelids (earthworms), cephalopods (squids, octopus), & all vertebrates |
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Term
| Common features of Closed Circulatory Systems |
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Definition
1. Blood (cells, large solutes) remains within vessels
2. One or more contractile, muscular hearts
3. Often blood proteins that bind to O2 & CO2, increasing carrying capacity
4. May contain disease-fighting cells & molecules
5. Flow can be adjusted to match local tissue/organ metabolic demands
6. Capacity to heal vessels when broken/wounded (clots) |
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Term
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Definition
| small solutes & water can move between vessels & Interstitial fluid |
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Term
| Circulation found in animals |
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Definition
1. delivers nutrients & oxygen, picks up CO2 & waste products
2. deoxygenated blood is returned by veins to the heart |
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Term
| Circulation found in annelids, fish, & cephalopods |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
1. Single blood circuit
2. Single atrium collects blood from tissues
3. SIngle ventricle pumps blood out of the heart
4. Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the gills
5. Blood picks up O2 & drops off CO2 & goes on through arteries to other body tissues (under low pressure) |
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Term
| Circulation found in crocodiles, birds, & mammals |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
1. Two distinct blood circuits
2. Oxygenated & deoxygenated blood separates into 2 distinct circuits
3. Systematic circulation
4. Pulmonary circulation
5. 2 atria & 2 ventricles |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Major advantage of double circulation |
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Definition
| high pressure circulation to 2 different systems |
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Term
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Definition
1. Rely on lungs & highly permeable skin to obtain O2 & get rid of CO2
2. Heart pumps blood to either pulmocutaneous circulation or systematic circulation
3. 2 atria to collect blood
4. Both atria dump into single ventricle
5. Internal structure causes oxygenated & deoxygenated blood to remain mostly separated
6. But, some mixing does occur reducing efficiency
7. Noncrodilian reptiles also have 2 atria & 1 ventricle but skin is not a major exchange surface |
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Term
| Pulmocutaneous circulation |
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Definition
| respiratory surfaces of lungs & skin |
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Term
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Definition
| body tissues within reptiles & amphibians |
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Term
| Right atrium in reptiles & amphibians |
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Definition
| blood that's been through the body (not lungs) & is low in O2 (except oxygenated blood from skin) |
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Term
| Left atrium in reptiles & amphibians |
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Definition
| blood from lungs (O2 rich when air breathing) |
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Term
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Definition
1. Septum separates atrai & ventricles
2. Blood enters from systematic or pulmonary veins into atrium
3. Through one-way atrioventricular (AV) valves into ventricles
4. Out one-way semilunar valves into systematic or pulmonary arteries |
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Term
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Definition
1. Neurotransmitter release
2. Action potential conduction into T-tubules
3. Calcium release form sarcoplasmic reticulum
4. Calcium binding to troponin
5. Troponin effect tropomyosin, unblocking myosin binding sites on actin filaments |
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Term
| Heart muscle is electrically excitable in Mammalian Heart |
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Definition
1. Mammalian heart can generate their own periodic action potentials--"myogenic" excitation
2. "Neurogenic" hearts of arthropods require regular electrical impulses from the nervous system |
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Term
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Definition
| nervous input can increase or decrease rate |
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Term
| Activation of Mammalian heart contraction |
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Definition
1. Action potential spreads because cardiac cells are electrically coupled by gap junctions (from a syncytium)
2. Both atria contract together forcing blood through AV valves into ventricles
3. Electrical impulses reach AV node conducts impulse to ventricles, after short delay
4. Both ventricles contract together forcing blood through semilunar valves into systematic or pulmonary arteries |
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Term
| Both ventricles contract together |
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Definition
| all valves shut so blood travels only in one way |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| collection of modified cardiac cells that spontaneously & rhythmically generate action potentials |
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Term
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Definition
1. Events that produce a single heartbeat
2. Diastole & systole
3. Heart valves open & shut in response to pressure gradients |
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Term
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Definition
| atria contract & ventricles fill (systematic blood pressure lowest) |
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Term
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Definition
| ventricles contract & blood is ejected from the heart (systematic blood pressure highest) |
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Term
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Definition
| fluid connective tissue in closed circulatory system: transport medium |
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Term
| 4 prominent components of vertebrate blood |
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Definition
1. Plasma
2. Erythrocytes
3. Platelets or thrombocytes
4. Leukocytes |
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Term
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Definition
water & solutes
1. function in buffering, water balance, & cell transport
2. contains dissolved proteins, gases, minerals, nutrients |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| oxygen transport using hemoglobin |
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Term
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Definition
| role in formation of blood clots (fibrin precipitation) |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| defend body against infection & disease |
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Term
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Definition
1. conduct blood away from the heart
2. layers of smooth muscle & elastic connective tissue around smooth endothelium (epithelial tissue on inside) |
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Term
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Definition
1. smaller in diameter, branches of arteries
2. walls thinner than arteries, lack thick layer of connective tissue
3. have smooth muscle encircling |
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Term
| Smooth muscle encircling arterioles |
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Definition
1. Can dilate or constrict to control blood distribution to tissues
2. A key factor in blood pressure regulation |
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Term
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Definition
1. Smallest & narrowest, thinnest walled vessels in the body
2. Arterioles branch into fine capillary networks
3. Site of gas & nutrient/waste exchange
4. Single-celled thick endothelium layer on a basement membrane |
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Term
| Arterioles branch into fine capillary networks |
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Definition
| most cells in the body are within a few cell diameters of a capillary |
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Term
| Single-celled thick endothelium layer on a basement membrane |
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Definition
1. Fenestrated capillaries have opening or fenestrations, allow for movement of considerable water & small solutes through the walls
2. Continuous capillaries have smooth walls with no fenestrations; permit less water & solute movement |
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Term
| Movement of materials through capillaries |
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Definition
1. Blood enters capillary on arteriole end under hydrostatic pressure
2. Pressure forces some fluid out of the blood (not RBCs or large proteins)
3. Hydrostatic pressure decreases along the capillary bed
4. Proteins in the blood create an osmotic force that draws fluid back into blood
5. Most of the fluid that leaves will be recaptured by the venule end of the capillary
6. Lymphatic system will collect fluid that is not captured & return it to the blood |
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Term
| 3 different ways pressure forces some fluid out of the blood |
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Definition
1. between cells
2. small pores
3. fenestrations |
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Term
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Definition
1. capillaries come together to drain into venules
2. thin walls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Thinner & less elastic than arteries
2. Need help returning blood to the heart |
|
|
Term
| 3 ways veins need help returning blood to the heart |
|
Definition
1. smooth muscle contractions help propel blood
2. veins squeeze by skeletal muscles
3. flow is directed by unidirectional valves: changes in pressure |
|
|
Term
| Adaptative capabilities of the vascular system |
|
Definition
1. System must adapt to changing conditions
2. Blood can be routed to different areas in proportion to their need for O2 & nutrients |
|
|
Term
| Vascular system must adapt to changing conditions such as: |
|
Definition
| sleep, feeding, sudden activity, & emergencies |
|
|
Term
| Blood can be routed to different areas in proportion to their need for O2 & nutrients |
|
Definition
1. Can be controlled by vasodilation or vasoconstruction
2. "Precapillary sphincters" |
|
|
Term
| Respiration, Gas Exchange |
|
Definition
| refers to gas exchange processes in the body |
|
|
Term
| 2 types of Respiration, Gas Exchange |
|
Definition
1. Pulmonary respiration
2. Internal Respiration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gas exchange moves carbon dioxide & oxygen between the air & blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gas exchange moves carbon dioxide & oxygen between blood & cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
21% oxygen
78% nitrogen
>1% CO2 & other gases |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the body surfaces of animals
2. decreases at higher elevations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Measure in mmHg or kPa: -1kPa = 7.5 mmHg |
|
|
Term
| Sea Level Atmospheric Gases |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Atmospheric pressure is the sum of the "partial pressure" exerted by each gas in air
2. Partial pressure is determined by the proportion of a particular gas in the atmosphere
3. Direction of gas diffusion is driven by partial pressure gradients
4. Partial pressure can be defined for dissolved gases (gases dissolved in water, blood, hemolymph, etc.)
5. Rate & direction of gas diffusion into or out of blood is determined by partial pressure differences |
|
|
Term
| Proportion of a particular gas in the atmosphere |
|
Definition
| PO2 = 0.21 x 760mmHg = 160mmHg |
|
|
Term
| Solubility of gases in water |
|
Definition
1. Gases dissolve in solution-freshwater, seawater, or body fluids
2. Most gases dissolve poorly in water |
|
|
Term
| Factors influencing solubility in water |
|
Definition
1. Higher pressures will result in more gas in solution up to a limit for each gas
2. Cold water holds more gas than warm water
3. The pressure of other solutes decreases the amounts of gas that dissolves into solution |
|
|
Term
| All respiratory organs share common features for gas exchange |
|
Definition
1. Moist surfaces in which gases dissolve & diffuse
2. Often structured to provide large surface area for gas exchange
3. Extensive blood supply |
|
|
Term
| Challenges for terrestrial vs. aquatic animals |
|
Definition
1. Aquatic animals have less available oxygen (partial pressure of O2 less in water than in air)
2. When temperature changes in water, O2 availability also fluctuates (gases dissolve more easily in cold water than in warm water)
3. Terrestrial animals have to deal with desiccation (drying out of respiratory membranes)
4. Water is denser than air |
|
|
Term
| Invertebrates with one or a few cell layers can use diffusion for gas exchange |
|
Definition
1. Some do not even need specialized transport mechanism
2. Small, flat body form |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Body surfaces may be permeable to gases
2. Specialized exchange surfaces |
|
|
Term
| Body surfaces may be permeable to gases in larger organisms |
|
Definition
| amphibians are the only vertebrate to rely on their skin for gas exchange under water |
|
|
Term
| Specialized exchange surfaces within larger organisms |
|
Definition
| gills, tracheae (insects), lungs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Vary widely in appearance but all have a large surface area (extensive projections)
2. May exist in one body area or be scattered over a large area, branching |
|
|
Term
| Limitations of external gills |
|
Definition
1. Unprotected & subjected to damage
2. Appearance & motion may attract predators |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Fish gills are confined & protected within opercular cavity covered by operculum
2. Gill arches
3. Filaments branch off of gill arches
4. Lameilae branch off of filaments
5. Blood vessels run the length of the filaments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| main support structure in internal gills |
|
|
Term
| Blood vessels run the length of the filaments in internal gills |
|
Definition
1. oxygen-poor blood travels through afferent vessel
2. oxygen-rich blood travels through efferent vessel |
|
|
Term
| Blood in capillaries flows in opposite direction as water flow-allows for more efficient gas exchange |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. An intermediate equilibrium state is reached [concurrent]
2. Disequilibrium maintained; exchange continues over; entire exchange surface [countercurrent] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Concentration is more equal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Spiracles on the body surface lead to trachea that branch into tracheoles terminating near every body cell
2. Small amount of fluid for gas to diffuse into
3. Muscular movements of body draw air into & out of trachea
4. Open circulatory system of insect not used in gas exchange
5. Oxygen diffuses directly from air into tracheae to tracheoles to body cells
6. Very efficient-supports insect flight muscle with highest metabolic rate known |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Almost all air-breathing terrestrial vertebrates use lungs
2. Arachnids (scorpions & some spiders) have book lungs that actually more closely resemble gills
3. Lungs may be filled using positive or negative pressure
4. Lungs can be ventilated using tidal or flow-through systems |
|
|
Term
| Positive pressure in lungs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Negative pressure in lungs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Flow-through systems in lungs |
|
Definition
| doesn't follow same path inward & outward |
|
|
Term
| Amphibian Lungs & Positive Pressure Filling/Breathing |
|
Definition
1. Most amphibians have lungs that are simple sacs
2. Relatively low surface area
3. Ventilate lungs similar to buccal pumping of fish
4. Lowers bottom jaw to create pressure gradient to suck air in
5. Muscles in mouth constrict (with mouth closed) to raise pressure & force air into lungs-positive pressure filling
6. A few species of reptiles also use positive pressure filling |
|
|
Term
| Negative Pressure Ventilation |
|
Definition
1. Reptiles, birds, mammals
2. Volume of thoracic cavity expands, creating negative pressure, & air drawn into lungs |
|
|
Term
| Mammals = tidal ventilation |
|
Definition
1. Inhalation
2. Exhalation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. intercostals contract to move chest wall up & out
2. diaphragm contracts & drops down-thoracic cavity enlarges
3. pressure decreases, air sucked in |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. intercostals & diaphragm relax-thoracic cavity compressed
2. pressure increases, air pushe out |
|
|
Term
| Avian lungs & flow-thru breathing |
|
Definition
1. During inhalation, air moves through trachea into posterior air sacs, not lungs (base of body)
2. During exhalation, air moves through air sacs (pariabronchi) into lungs, then pushed through trachea
3. Air sacs expand & shrink--do not participate in gas exchange
4. Blood flows crosscurrent with respect to air movement |
|
|
Term
| During inhalation in avian lungs |
|
Definition
| air in lungs (from previous breath) moves into anterior air sacs |
|
|
Term
| During exhalation in avian lungs |
|
Definition
1. Region of gas exchange, single direction flow through lung into anterior air sacs; exhalation empties air from these sacs
2. Air in anterior sacs exits body |
|
|
Term
| Mammalian Respiratory System Anatomy |
|
Definition
1. Nose & mouth
2. Mucus in the nose cleans the air of dust
3. Pharynx
4. Larynx
5. Trachea
6. Lungs
7. Trachea branches into 2 bronchi
8. Bronchioles
9. Alveoli |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| air is warmed & humidified |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the hollow tube about 5 in. long that starts behind the nose & ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) & esophagus (tube that goes to stomach) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glottis (opening to trachea) protected by epiglottis, rings of cartilage (prevent collapse during inhalation), cilia & mucus trap particles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| surrounded by circular muscle to dilate or constrict passage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. small pouches
2. site of gas exchange
3. one cell thick walls
4. surfactant chemicals reduce surface tension, prevent alveoli from collapsing
5. inner surface coated with extracellular fluid for gases to dissolve |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| differences in pressures are going to drive diffusion of the gases in the proper directions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. a major portion of the body mass
2. solvent for chemical reactions
3. transport vehicle |
|
|
Term
| Dehydration may comprise essential processes |
|
Definition
| E.g. the circulatory system & regulation for body temperature |
|
|
Term
| circulatory system & regulation for body temperature |
|
Definition
1. sweat draws off heat energy
2. taking water to surface of skin-taking heat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. salts dissociate in solution into charged ions
2. electrolyte balance important
3. imbalance can alter membrane potential or disrupt other cellular activities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. water moves between adjacent body compartments by osmosis down an osmotic gradient
2. changes in salt concentration in one compartment will lead to change in fluid distribution between compartments
3. shrinking or swelling cells can rupture plasma membrane leading to cell death
4. change of osmosis changes water content of cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. a major portion of the body mass
2. solvent for chemical reactions
3. transport vehicle |
|
|
Term
| Dehydration may comprise essential processes |
|
Definition
| E.g. the circulatory system & regulation of body temperature |
|
|
Term
| Circulatory system & regulation of body temperature |
|
Definition
1. sweat draws off heat energy
2. taking water to surface of skin-taking heat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Salts dissociate in solution into charged ions
2. Electrolyte balance important
3. Imbalance can alter membrane potential or disrupt other cellular activities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Water moves between adjacent body compartments by osmosis down an osmotic gradient
2. Changes in salt concentration in one compartment will lead to change in fluid distribution between compartment
3. Shrinking or swelling cells can rupture plasma membrane leading to cell death
4. Change of osmosis changes water content of cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| many vital processes have the potential to alter salt & water balance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. loss of water by evaporation
2. fish can lose or gain water as water passes over gills |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| production of metabolic water: glucose + oxygen = carbon dioxide + water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| panting & sweating cause loss of water & salts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| salts & water are lost in feces & urine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Osmolarity of body fluids compared to fresh & saltwater environments |
|
Definition
1. Osmolarity
2. Internal fluid osmolarity of most fish & other vertebrates around 225-400 mosm/L
3. Freshwater less than 25 mosm/L
4. Seawater 1000 mosm/L |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Total concentration of dissolved solute molecules/Liter:
150 mM NaCl solution = 300 mosm/L
one Na+ & one Cl- made when salt dissociates |
|
|
Term
| Water Balance in Aquatic Organisms |
|
Definition
| water moves by osmosis from areas of low osmolarity to high osmolarity |
|
|
Term
| Osmoregulation in Freshwater Fish |
|
Definition
1. Gain water when ventilating gills
2. Kidneys reproduce copious dilute urine
3. Specialized gill epithelial cells transport Na+ & Cl- from water into fish's capillaries |
|
|
Term
| Kidneys in freshwater fish reproduce copious dilute urine |
|
Definition
| don't drink much because comes on by osmosis |
|
|
Term
| Osmoregulation in Saltwater Fish |
|
Definition
1. Lose water across gills
2. Produce very little urine
3. Drink seawater to replace water lost
4. Expend energy to transport excess salt out of body through gill epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| many marine invertebrates & cartilaginous fishes (sharks, rays) maintain body fluid osmolarity similar to the surrounding seawater |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
many are osmoconformers, with wide tolerance (i.e. tidal pool organisms)
1. often have similar ionic concentration as seawater
2. hagfish are the only vertebrate that exhibit this approach to water balance |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
allow urea to accumulate in blood
1. Total solute concentration similar to seawater, but solute composition different |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Product of protein & nucleic acid degradation
2. Toxic at high concentrations
3. Must be eliminated from the body |
|
|
Term
| Nitrogenous wastes are eliminated from the body |
|
Definition
1. various organs & organ systems utilized
2. the chemical forms of excretal nitrogenous wastes among animals varies |
|
|
Term
| Ammonia (NH3) & ammonium ions (NH4+) |
|
Definition
1. Most toxic of nitrogenous wastes
2. Many aquatic animals can excrete it as soon as it forms
3. Some terrestrial snails & crustaceans secrete it as a gas
4. Chief advantage is that energy is not required for production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. All mammals, some marine fishes, some reptiles, & some terrestrial invertebrates
2. Less toxic, so doesn't need as large a volume of water for excretion
3. Can tolerate some urea accumulation
4. Drawback is conversion of ammonia to urea requires ATP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Birds, insects, & most reptiles
2. Less toxic than ammonia
3. More energetically costly than urea to make from ammonia
4. Balanced against water conserved by excreting semisolid, partly dried precipitate |
|
|
Term
| Vertebrate Urinary System |
|
Definition
1. Organ system designed to remove and dispose of nitrogenous wastes, excess water, & blood solutes
2. For terrestrial organisms, water conservation is often important. The vertebrate urinary system provides a mechanism to concentrate waste products before release to reduce water loss. |
|
|
Term
| Organs, Important Structures in Vertebrate Urinary System |
|
Definition
1. Kidney
2. Ureters
3. Urinary Bladder
4. Urethra |
|
|
Term
| 3 Main Structures of Kidney |
|
Definition
1. Renal Cortex
2. Renal Medulla
3. Renal Pelvis |
|
|
Term
| Excretory Organs Function |
|
Definition
1. Filtration
2. Reabsorption
3. Secretion
4. Excretion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. organ acts like a filter to remove water & small solutes from blood while leaving behind blood cells & large solutes
2. produces filtrate that is moved into excretory tubules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| desirable material in filtrate is recaptured & retrained to blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| additional solutes moved into filtrate by active transport mechanisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| filtrate containing waste products & non-reabsorbed solutes released from the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. found in Platyhelminthes
2. Simplest filtration mechanism in invetebrates
3. Primarily osmoregulatory |
|
|
Term
| Simplest filtration mechanism in invertebrates |
|
Definition
1. Series of branching tubules filters fluids from body cavity using beating of ciliated cells (flame cells)
2. Excess water & some wastes emptied through openings in body walled called nephridiopores
3. Beneficial solutes reabsorbed prior to excretion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Help to rid the body of excess water
2. In these organisms, nitrogenous wastes mainly diffuse out of the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Found in Annelids
2. Pairs located in each body segment
3. Tubular network beginning in funnel-like structure called nephrostome
4. Collect coelomic fluid containing nitrogenous wastes, dissolved solutes
5. Beneficial solutes reabsorbed along the tubule length, unneeded solutes remain in filtrate
6. Nitrogenous wastes, excess solutes excreted through nephridiopores in body wall |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Found in insects
2. Not a filtration system
3. Tubules extend from the intestine
4. Cells lining tubules actively transport & secrete solutes & uric acid from hemolymph into lumen of the malpighian tubules
5. Transport of solutes creates osmotic gradient, drawing water into tubule
6. Material in tubules move into hindgut where water and beneficial solutes are reabsorbed
7. Nitrogenous wastes & others excreted together with feces through anus |
|
|
Term
| Nephrons in Vertebrate Kidney Function |
|
Definition
1. Specialized tubules composed of epithelial cells that actively transport sodium and other ions for salt and water homeostasis and nitrogenous waste elimination
2. Nephrons are the functional of the kidney
3. As many as several million in each kidney
4. A nephron consists of renal corpuscle & tubule
5. Nephron tubules empty into collecting duct
6. Glomerulus
7. Bowman's capsule encloses Bowman's space
8. Filtration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| performs secretion and reabsorption |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Cluster of interconnected fenestrated capillaries
2. Supplied by afferent arteriole
3. Drained by efferent arteriole
4. Podocytes form filtration slits (physical barriers) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| space in between Bowman's capsule & glomerulus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. As blood flows through glomerulus, about 20% of plasma leaves capillaries and filters into Bowman's space
2. Proteins & blood cells remain in plasma
3. Glomerular filtrate = water & small solutes
4. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is rate of filtrate production by kidneys |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Continuous with Bowman's capsule
2. Epithelial cells differ in structure and function along length
3. Segments of loop of Henle
4. Distal convoluted tubules empty into collecting ducts
5. Tubule surrounded by peritubular capillaries near junction of cortex & medulla and vasa recta capillaries in the medulla
6. Processes occurring in nephron tubules |
|
|
Term
| Segments of Loop of Henle |
|
Definition
1. Proximal convoluted tubule--proximal to Bowman's capsule
2. Loop of Henle
3. Distal Convoluted Tubule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. descending goes down into medulla
2. ascending comes up out of the medulla |
|
|
Term
| Processes occurring in nephron tubules |
|
Definition
1. Reabsorption of proximal tubule
2. Water & salt movement in the Loop of Henle |
|
|
Term
| Reabsorption of proximal tubule |
|
Definition
1. Filtrate is around 300 mosm/L similar to blood
2. Water & solutes are reabsorbed into peritubular capillaries to return to body
3. Depending on solute, 2/3 to all is reabsorbed |
|
|
Term
| Various solutes that are reabsorbed in nephron tubule |
|
Definition
1. Na+
2. Cl-
3. K+
4. HCO3-
5. organic molecules like glucose & amino acids |
|
|
Term
| Water and salt movement in the Loop of Henle |
|
Definition
1. Descending loop permeable to water but not solutes
2. Ascending loop (thick segment) not permeable to water & actively transports salts out |
|
|
Term
| Descending loop in Loop of Henle permeable to water but not solutes |
|
Definition
1. Water leaves by osmosis because surrounding fluid hyperosmotic
2. Fluid increases in osmolarity & solute concentration |
|
|
Term
| Ascending loop (thick segment) in Loop of Henle not permeable to water & actively transports salts out |
|
Definition
1. Tubule fluid decreases in osmolarity
2. Interstitial fluid increases in osmolarity (contributing to hyperosmotic fluid around descending loop) |
|
|
Term
| Concentration of Urine/Conservation of Water |
|
Definition
1. An Osmotic Gradient in the Kidney medulla is key to concentrating urine and conserving water
2. Establishing the osmotic gradient in the kidney medulla |
|
|
Term
| An Osmotic Gradient in the Kidney medulla is key to concentrating urine & conserving water |
|
Definition
1. Osmotic gradient, lower solute concentration in cortex and outer medulla, higher solute concentration in inner medulla
2. Collecting duct permeable to water but not to most ions
3. Osmotic movement of water from the collecting ducts to interstitial fluid of the medulla |
|
|
Term
| Establishing the osmotic gradient of the kidney medulla causes: |
|
Definition
1. Pumping of NaCl out of ascending limb of loop of Henle
2. Facilitated diffusion of urea out of lower collecting duct |
|
|
Term
| Pumping of NaCl out of ascending limb of loop of Henle |
|
Definition
| causes osmosis of water out of descending loop & collecting ducts |
|
|
Term
| Facilitated diffusion of urea out of lower collecting duct |
|
Definition
| concentration of urine due to water loss by osmosis increases collecting duct urea concentration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The study of the interactions between organisms and between organisms and their environments |
|
|
Term
| Levels of Ecological Study |
|
Definition
1. Organismal
2. Population
3. Community
4. Ecosystems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Focuses on the specific characteristics of individual organisms, and how these characteristics contribute to survival
2. Physiological adaptations
3. Behavioral patterns
4. Mating |
|
|
Term
| Physiological adaptations within organismal ecology |
|
Definition
| tolerance/adaptation to changes in environmental conditions (temperature, water salinity) |
|
|
Term
| Behavioral patterns within organismal ecology |
|
Definition
1. Migration
2. Foraging behaviors-how look for food
3. Social interactions |
|
|
Term
| Social Interactions within organismal ecology |
|
Definition
1. Territoriality
2. Communication between individuals
3. Living in groups (herds, hives, flocks, etc.)
4. Altruism
5. Mating |
|
|
Term
| Mating within organismal ecology |
|
Definition
1. Seasonal patterns
2. Mate choice
3. Mating behaviors, structures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Focuses on the factors that influence the size, density, or growth of populations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| group of interbreeding individuals (same species) present in a particular area |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| focuses on how groups of different species interact, and form communities with distinct characteristics; can be descriptive |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a group of populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Focuses on the movement of energy and materials through organisms and their communities
2. Nutrient cycles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All the organisms in an area (biotic component) along with the abiotic environment (soil, water, nutrients, gases, ...) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. producers & consumers
2. trophic level transfer efficiencies |
|
|
Term
| Trophic Level Transfer Efficiencies |
|
Definition
| What proportion of energy from one level in a food web is assimilated in the next higher level? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Carbon cycles
2. Nitrogen cycles
3. Sulfur cycles
4. Water cycles |
|
|
Term
| General Aspects of Population Ecology |
|
Definition
1. Uses tools of demography
2. Density
3. Population growth affects population density |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. birth rates
2. death rates
3. age distributions
4. sizes of populations |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number of organisms in a given unit area |
|
|
Term
| Quantifying Population Density |
|
Definition
1. Simple visual count
2. Sampling methods to extrapolate captured organism
3. Mark-recapture method |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
# of marked ind. in 1st chain/total pop. size, N = # of marked recaptures in 2nd catch/total # of 2nd catch
total pop. size, N = # of ind. 1st catch x Total # of 2nd catch/# of marked recaptures in 2nd catch |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Clumped
2. Uniform
3. Random |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. most common
2. resources tend to be clustered in nature
3. social behavior may also promote the pattern |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. competition may cause this pattern
2. may also result from social interactions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. rarest
2. resources are rarely randomly spaced
3. may occur where resources where resources are common & abundant |
|
|
Term
| Survivorship Curve definition |
|
Definition
| plots numbers of surviving individuals (or proportion) for a particular age cohort |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| May use logs to make it easier to examine wide range of population sizes |
|
|
Term
| 3 common patterns of survivorship curves |
|
Definition
1. Type 1
2. Type 2
3. Type 3 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rate of loss of juveniles low & most individuals survive later in life |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fairly uniform death rate over the lifespan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rate of loss for juveniles high & then low for survivors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. Data collected on the number of individuals alive in each defined age class
2. Males often not included (usually not a limiting factor for population growth) |
|
|
Term
| North American beaver example |
|
Definition
1. Trappers provided mandibles
2. Teeth analyzed for age classification
3. Assembled a "state" life table |
|
|
Term
| Age-specific fertility rate, Mx |
|
Definition
1. proportion of female offspring born to females of particular age
2. 100 females of a certain age produce 75 female offspring Mx=0.75 |
|
|
Term
| Age-specific survivors hip rate, Ix |
|
Definition
1. proportion of individuals that will live to the next year
2. IxMx = contribution of each age class to the overall population growth |
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Term
| Estimating Reproductive Rates from Life Table Data |
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Definition
1. Rsub0 = net reproductive rate
2. To calculate future size of population in the next generation, multiply # of individuals in the population by the net reproductive rate |
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