Term
| sublexical route of word reading |
|
Definition
| encodes spelling-sound knowledge by grapheme-phoneme correspondence (GPC) rules |
|
|
Term
| lexical route of word reading |
|
Definition
| encodes whole-word spelling-sound correspondences |
|
|
Term
| what kind of words can be read through either the sublexical or the lexical route? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| semantic route of word reading |
|
Definition
| the basis on which we understand words; plays a limited role in word reading |
|
|
Term
| triangle model (Seidenberg & McClelland 1989) for word reading |
|
Definition
| orthography, phonology, & semantics all work together |
|
|
Term
| network settles to a pattern of activation that settles over what 3 kinds of units for word reading? |
|
Definition
1. semantic
2. orthologic
3. phonologic |
|
|
Term
| distributed representations of word reading |
|
Definition
| orthography, phonology, & semantics are represented by distributed patterns of activity such that similar words are represented by similar patterns |
|
|
Term
| distributed knowledge of word reading |
|
Definition
| knowledge of the relationship among orthography, phonology, & semantics is encoded across connection weights that are learned gradually through repeated experience with words in a way that is sensitive to the statistical nature of each mapping |
|
|
Term
| interactivity of word reading |
|
Definition
| mapping among orthography, phonology, & semantics is accomplished through the simultaneous interaction of many units, such that familiar overall patterns (including appropriate responses) become stable |
|
|
Term
| Seidenberg & McClelland (1989) method for making their reading model |
|
Definition
| feedforward network trained with back-propagation to pronounce 2897 monosyllabic words; representations of orthography & phonology was based on context-sensitive triples of letters of phonemic features |
|
|
Term
| did Seidenberg & McClelland have distinction in how their system processes exception words/pseudowords? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| results of Seidenberg & McClelland (1989) method for making their reading model |
|
Definition
| after 250 training epochs, network correctly pronounces 97.3% of words, including most exception words; error pattern accounts for many empirical effects of frequency & consistency on naming latencies |
|
|
Term
| comparing triangle model performance to human results: high frequency words |
|
Definition
| mean naming latency is about equal for both exception & regular words...low for both |
|
|
Term
| comparing triangle model performance to human results: low frequency words |
|
Definition
| mean naming latency is way worse for exception words compared to regular words; regular word naming latency is still worse than high frequency for either |
|
|
Term
| how do human subjects compare to Seidenberg & McClelland's network for percent correct for regular nonwords, exception nonwords, or control nonwords? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Plaut, McClelland, Seidenberg, & Patterson used grapheme- & phoneme-based representations that condense ______ |
|
Definition
| spelling-sound regularities |
|
|
Term
| how did Plaut, McClelland, Seidenberg, & Patterson train their model? |
|
Definition
| trained with back-propagation on 2998 monosyllabic words (SM89 corpus plus additional 101 words) using log-frequencies for weight scale change |
|
|
Term
| how did Plaut et al's model compare to people for nonwords? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how did Plaut et al's model as well as people deal with nonword pronunciations? |
|
Definition
| both sensitive to patterns that go along with what you see in other English words |
|
|
Term
| what is often the result of brain damage to the left temporal lobe (stroke, head injury, or degenerative disease) in premorbidly literate adults? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| severe impairment to semantics, or to semantics-phonology mapping |
|
|
Term
| surface dyslexia: how do they do on nonword reading? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| surface dyslexia: word reading accuracy influenced by ______ & ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| surface dyslexia: exception words produce ______ errors |
|
Definition
| regularization (they pronounce known words by regular rules that they previously would have known did not follow those rules); for example: DEAF --> "deef" or GONE --> "goan" |
|
|
Term
| what two pathways combine to support oral reading? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| as semantic pathway develops, demands on _______ pathway diminish |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| impairment of ______ pathway by brain damage reveals latent limitations of intact phonological pathway |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| reading (low frequency) exception words should rely on ______ support |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what type of network was used to simulate surface dyslexia? |
|
Definition
| feedforward network with weight decay |
|
|
Term
| how was the contribution of semantics approximated in the simulation of surface dyslexia? |
|
Definition
| approximated by external correct input to phoneme units that increases gradually & is frequency-sensitive |
|
|
Term
| how does the model of surface dyslexia do on reading low frequency exception words prior to "degenerative disease" input to the external support pathway? |
|
Definition
| there is an early developmental phase where low frequency exceptions are a little slower, but once reach "adolescence", everything is pretty much even |
|
|
Term
| when was the deterioration applied to the word reading model to simulate surface dyslexia? |
|
Definition
| on a fully trained model! |
|
|
Term
| how did deterioration of the external support pathway to the phoneme units do with replicating surface dyslexia phenotypes in word reading? |
|
Definition
| the deterioration of the semantics pathway gave them the ability to map the surface dyslexia! |
|
|
Term
| if you have ______ pathway damage, you will get surface dyslexia? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| generally, the degree of semantic impairment correlates with _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do surface dyslexia patients do with "exceptions" on other tasks besides word reading? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| as you have ______ damage, you get worse & worse at idiosyncrasies |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the distributed connectionist "triangle" model of word reading predicts that semantic impairments should generally give rise to ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does the triangle model of word reading have the same semantic & phonological pathways or are they separate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does the entire triangle model system participate in processing all types of items? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 phenotypes of surface dyslexia |
|
Definition
1. normal pseudoword reading
2. regularize exception words
3. damage between the orthography & semantic parts of the triangle |
|
|
Term
| 4 phenotypes of phonological/deep dyslexia |
|
Definition
1. relatively intact word reading
2. extremely poor pseudoword reading
3. may misread certain words as other words that mean similar things (i.e. OCEAN could be read out loud as RIVER)
4. damage between orthography & phonologic parts of the triangle |
|
|
Term
| activation in the occipitotemporal cortex correlates with _______ |
|
Definition
| how "word-like" an orthographic input is! |
|
|
Term
| you see bigger differences in activation correlated with how "word-like" an orthographic input is in the anterior or posterior parts of the occipitotemporal cortex? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how did Binder et al study the effects of word frequency & regularity? |
|
Definition
| BOLD response to regular words, irregular words, nonwords |
|
|
Term
| lexical contrast for Binder et al |
|
Definition
| regular words vs nonwords |
|
|
Term
| sublexical contrast for Binder et al |
|
Definition
| irregular words vs nonwords |
|
|
Term
| what was the confounding feature of Binder et al regular-nonword contrast from BOLD experiment results? |
|
Definition
| you see distinction in areas that seem to be lexical BUT these areas also correlate with the latency with which the words are read (how quickly they are read) |
|
|
Term
| distinction areas in Binder et al's irregular-nonword contrast BOLD study also correlate with _______ |
|
Definition
| imageability (i.e. you can imagine a TABLE but not the word TRUTH) --> probably has something to do with semantics |
|
|
Term
| Binder et al found several regions that showed responses that increased with naming difficulty (nonword > irregular word > regular word) & were correlated with ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| did Binder et al find any regions consistent with a nonlexical, rule-based mechanism (i.e. nonword > regular word > irregular word)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Binder et al found several regions activated more by words than nonwords, but equally so for irregular & regular words & they showed effects of ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why, prior to Hoffman et al, was there little direct evidence for activation in anterior temporal lobes (ATL) during reading aloud? |
|
Definition
| likely because of poor BOLD signal in ATL due to susceptibility artifact (air cavities) |
|
|
Term
| how did Hoffman et al test for semantic involvement during reading aloud? |
|
Definition
| used distortion-correct functional imaging of reading aloud, crossing frequency & consistency |
|
|
Term
| 4 specific ROIs in Hoffman et al's reading aloud study |
|
Definition
1. ventral occipito-temporal (vOT) [orthography]
2. precentral gyrus (PCG) [phonology]
3. ventral anterior temporal (vATL) [semantics]
4. lateral anterior temporal (lATL) [semantics --> phonology] |
|
|
Term
| Hoffman et al, in their reading aloud study, correlated activation with behavioral measure of _______ |
|
Definition
| "semantic reliance" (regularity effect among low-imageable words) |
|
|
Term
| BOLD responses to specific word types: vOT |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BOLD responses to specific word types: PCG |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BOLD responses to specific word types: vATL |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| BOLD responses to specific word types: lATL |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| modulation by regular words: increase involvement in mapping up to ______ |
|
Definition
| PCG (mapping to phonology) |
|
|
Term
| modulation by exception words: biggest change is greater correlation with ______ --> ______ |
|
Definition
| vOT (orthography) --> ATL (semantics) |
|
|
Term
| 4 things aphasia can affect |
|
Definition
1. talking
2. listening comprehension
3. writing
4. reading |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| about 250,000 new cases per year (National Aphasia Organization) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| greater than 2,500,000 people in North America - this estimate is likely conservative (Simmons-Mackie 2018) |
|
|
Term
| is aphasia more or less common than Parkinson's disease, ALS, & cerebral palsy? |
|
Definition
| more; but with lower public awareness |
|
|
Term
| what is the main thing that tends to cause aphasia? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ is an acquired communication disorder that impairs a person's ability to process language, but does not affect intelligence |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why can aphasia be hard to diagnose? |
|
Definition
| individuals are not able to effectively communicate & are often assumed to be mentally ill due to impaired language output ability |
|
|
Term
| impairment, due to brain damage, of the capacity to interpret & formulate language symbols |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in aphasia, ______ impairments are prominent compared to any other cognitive deficits that may be present (Bek et al) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| examples of common aphasia deficits & characteristics |
|
Definition
| anomia (semantic, phonological, or mixed paraphasias), auditory comprehension deficits, agrammatism (omission of function words, difficult with verbs/verb morphology), dysgraphia, dyslexia, variable performance, slowed processing times, reliance on situational context to understand/convey meaning, reduced sentence length/complexity, perseverative speech, reduced verbal short-term memory (STM) & working memory (WM) span, reduced gestures & co-verbal behaviors |
|
|
Term
| how many different aphasia classification systems have been proposed to date? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| nearly all aphasia classification systems have proposed _______ correlate classification categories |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 most common aphasia classification systems in use today |
|
Definition
1. centers & pathways (Wernicke/Lichtheim Model) aka "the Boston classification system"
2. fluent/nonfluence classification
3. no classification - focus on characterizing language profile |
|
|
Term
| 4 reasons to study aphasia classification |
|
Definition
1. provides important historical context
2. tied to vascular syndromes & useful for neurologists especially in early acute recovery (Hillis)
3. still in common use clinically based on common aphasia assessments (e.g. Western Aphasia Battery)
4. learning framework: providing examples of different aphasia classifications provide a structured way to work through & contrast different key features of aphasia |
|
|
Term
| 3 types of things tested in the Boston Classification System |
|
Definition
1. fluency (fluent or nonfluent)
2. auditory comprehension (good or poor)
3. repetition (good or poor ability to repeat verbal content) |
|
|
Term
| Broca's aphasia as characterized in Boston System |
|
Definition
1. nonfluent output
2. good comprehension
3. poor repetition |
|
|
Term
| which type of aphasia is described as follows: effortful speech, distorted articulation, short phrase length, agrammatic production, agrammatic comprehension, often hemiparetic, telegraphic speech in the sense that it is simple/single/on-target words, individuals may seem frustrated because they know what they want to say but cannot express it eloquently |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| classic postulated Broca's aphasia lesion site |
|
Definition
| posterior 2/3 of the inferior frontal gyrus; pars triangularis & pars opercularis; BA 44, 45 |
|
|
Term
| Wernicke's aphasia as characterized in Boston System |
|
Definition
1. fluent output
2. poor comprehension
3. poor repetition |
|
|
Term
| which aphasia is characterized as follows: well-articulated speech/without distortions, normal prosody (melody), long/syntactically varied utterances, poor self-monitoring; striking lack of awareness of many of their errors, demonstratable lexical-semantic & often conceptual-semantic impairments, motor deficits uncommon, very fluent/but not in response to the question being asked, a lot of empty content, the reduced awareness/reduced auditory comprehension can lead to making it more difficult to do behavioral intervention |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| classic postulated Wernicke's aphasia lesion site |
|
Definition
| posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus; BA 22 |
|
|
Term
| global aphasia as characterized by Boston System |
|
Definition
1. nonfluent output
2. poor auditory comprehension
3. poor repetition |
|
|
Term
| which aphasia is described as follows: may have varied/often neologistic output or recurrent stereotypy, usually hemiparetic or hemiplegic, intonation/prosody/gesture are all intact |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| postulated global aphasia lesion site |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| conduction aphasia as described by Boston System |
|
Definition
1. fluent output
2. good comprehension
3. poor repetition |
|
|
Term
| which aphasia is described as follows: able to accurately paraphrase sentences that they cannot correctly repeat, frequent phonemic or literal paraphasias, conduite d'approche (multiple production attempts that progressively more closely approximate the target), motor deficits uncommon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| classic conduction aphasia postulated lesion site |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| anomic aphasia as described by Boston System |
|
Definition
1. fluent output
2. good comprehension
3. good repetition |
|
|
Term
| which aphasia is described as follows: circumlocution & semantic paraphasias may be the predominant error types, may be the initial classification in mild cases/or may be the result of recovery from other types, motor deficits uncommon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| classic postulated anomic aphasia lesion site |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| transcortical motor aphasia as described by Boston System |
|
Definition
1. nonfluent output
2. good comprehension
3. good repetition |
|
|
Term
| 3 outdated assumptions used in the Boston System |
|
Definition
1. language representations are stored in disease "centers"
2. centers are connected to one another by unique & discrete pathways
3. lesions in specific centers or pathways create specific, differentiable types of aphasia |
|
|
Term
| Paul Broca's famous patients, Leborgne & Lelong, had lesions involving the ______ & behavioral deficits consistent with Broca's aphasia |
|
Definition
| left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Broca's aphasia is due to more than just lesions in Broca's area |
|
|
Term
| apraxia of speech is relatively localizable to ______ (Hillis et al) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al: goal of modern aphasia assessment is not syndrome classification but ______ |
|
Definition
| to ID specific language deficits |
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al used principle component analysis (PCA) to ID ______ |
|
Definition
| core language & cognitive processes affected by LH stroke on a wide battery of tests |
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al applied _______ to determine which brain areas are associated with core language processes |
|
Definition
| multivariate lesion symptom mapping |
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al: PCA identified 4 factors explaining 81% of test score variance |
|
Definition
1. word finding/fluency
2. comprehension
3. phonology/working memory capacity
4. executive function |
|
|
Term
| Lacy et al: word finding/fluency --> lesion in ______ |
|
Definition
| inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), anterior insula, & dorsal parietal white matter |
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al: comprehension --> lesion in ______ |
|
Definition
| superior temporal cortex anterior to Heschi's gyrus |
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al: phonology/working memory --> lesion in ______ |
|
Definition
| ventral motor & somatosensory cortex, supramarginal gyrus, & posterior planum temporale |
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al: executive function --> lesion in ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Lacey et al: IFG lesions were associated with impaired ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| predict standardized test results of language from clinical imaging (T1-weighted MRI) of stroke aphasia patients |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| can currently predict about 55% of patient variance in picture naming based on clinical MRI |
|
|
Term
| 4 behavioral interventions to help individuals with aphasia |
|
Definition
1. restorative impairment-focused treatment
2. compensatory treatment (e.g. strategy training)
3. counseling
4. education (understanding aphasia, advocacy, available resources) |
|
|
Term
| semantic feature analysis treatment for aphasia |
|
Definition
| have the individual not only say the word for a picture (e.g. an apple) but also say things like what you do with it, where you find it, what it reminds you of, what type of item it is |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| provided semantic feature analysis treatment to individuals with anomia aphasia --> observed baseline tracts predictive of treatment response & structural change correlated with treatment response |
|
|
Term
| _____ is a language disorder caused by brain damage, usually to the left hemisphere, which can affect spoken language production, auditory comprehension, reading, or writing |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is Phineas Gage famous? |
|
Definition
| he was the first patient who a physician described clearly as having profound disorders of personality due to prefrontal injury |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| shot a rod through his prefrontal cortex |
|
|
Term
| Harlow's description of Gage |
|
Definition
pre-injury: "shred, smart businessman, very energetic & persistent in executing all his plans of operation"
post-injury: "devising many plans of future operation, which are no sooner arranged than they are abandoned in turn for others appearing more feasible...fitful, irreverent, indulging at times in the grossest profanity (which was not previously his custom)" |
|
|
Term
| pseudo-depressive patient brain scans revealed she had a big ______ tumor |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what practice was picked up, popularized in the United States, & transformed into an outpatient procedure by Walter Freeman? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| did pre-frontal lobotomies change patients' personailities? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 big sets of abnormalities following prefrontal damage |
|
Definition
1. emotional/social abnormalities
2. impairments of executive control |
|
|
Term
| how to frontal patients do on this task (Shallice & Burgess): patients would be given a "scavenger hunt" of things to do with the goal of being as quick as possible & spend as little money as possible |
|
Definition
| could do the task reasonable well, but they made some specific kinds of errors (inefficiencies increased, rule breaks increased) |
|
|
Term
| who discovered that frontal patients distributed their time less efficiently than controls in a situation where they had to alternate among several quite different sub-tasks? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| results of this Shallice & Burgess task: complete three tasks each with two parts & do not do subtasks in the same set one after the other (i.e. cannot do task 2B right after doing task 2A) |
|
Definition
| at a basic level, the number of tasks patients took on was markedly less than healthy controls; the maximum time spent on each task was much greater for prefrontal patients than for controls |
|
|
Term
| Shallice & Burgess sub-tasks task conclusions |
|
Definition
| prefrontal patients probably failed due to perseveration |
|
|
Term
| in the Wisconsin Card Sort Task, dorsolateral prefrontal patients tend to _______ |
|
Definition
| perseverate (using an old strategy long after it has ceased to work & even after they have verbalized that it is not working) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the cards vary with regards to color, shape, and/or number of symbols on the card; individuals must guess which pile a card belongs in (i.e. are we sorting by color or by symbol?) --> each time the subjects sorts a card, they are told whether that response was correct or incorrect --> after 10 consecutive correct responses, the rule suddenly changes (no cue to the subject...again just get the feedback response) |
|
|
Term
| Wisconsin Card Sort Task results (Milner) |
|
Definition
| prefrontal patients would continue following the rule they were initially using, even after it failed to work |
|
|
Term
| Brixton Test results (Burgess & Shallice) |
|
Definition
| those with frontal injury make many "bizarre" responses & tend to abandon a good rule unnecessarily |
|
|
Term
| Brixton Test (Burgess & Shallice) |
|
Definition
| patients to figure out the rule where, flipping from page to page with a bunch of circles, which will be filled on successive pages |
|
|
Term
| 3 types of errors on Brixton Test made by prefrontal patients (Burgess & Shallice) |
|
Definition
1. perseveration
2. misapplication of former rule to present situation
3. "bizarre" errors were where the patients different the most from controls (capriciousness) |
|
|
Term
| 2 results for word fluency test (open-ended word-generation test) frontal patients (Rylander) |
|
Definition
1. came up with fewer words than normal
2. break rules |
|
|
Term
| word fluency test (Rylander) |
|
Definition
| subjects would be given a rule (ex. write down as many words as you can beginning with the letter "C" & having four letters) & asked to follow it over the course of 5 minutes |
|
|
Term
| word fluency test result (Rylander) |
|
Definition
| inability to come up with many words in frontal patients demonstrates vacancy |
|
|
Term
| result of this task: Rylander asked her patients what was going through their minds while doing the word fluency test |
|
Definition
| patients were trying extremely hard on the task but could not come up with anything! would get quite frustrated |
|
|
Term
| main result of frontal patient with dynamic aphasia task (Cipolotti et al) |
|
Definition
| poor at generating verbal responses in situations where the nature of the response is not fully determined by the stimulus; not a full-blown aphasia, but they have difficulty coming up with words under certain conditions |
|
|
Term
| dynamic aphasia task (Cipolotti et al): patients are given a picture of something (i.e. a dog) & asked to generate a sentence for the picture --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dynamic aphasia task (Cipolotti et al): make the picture more of an action than a simple noun --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dynamic aphasia task (Cipolotti et al): given an action picture, ask the patient what will happen next --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| interpretation of Cipolotti et al dynamic aphasia task results |
|
Definition
| when patient must make something up, they fail (example of vacancy) |
|
|
Term
| how to frontal patients do on proverbs test (Rylander) |
|
Definition
| their responses became super concrete! lack of abstract thinking/description |
|
|
Term
| Burgess & Shallice: Hayling Test |
|
Definition
subject is given a sentence with the final word omitted
Hayling A: you are supposed to complete the sentence with an appropriate word
Hayling B: you are supposed to complete the sentence with a word that makes no sense |
|
|
Term
| Burgess & Shallice: Hayling Test results |
|
Definition
Hayling A: frontal patients were slower
Hayling B: they showed an excessive slowing |
|
|
Term
| 3 types of responses for Hayling B Test |
|
Definition
1. responses that complete it properly
2. responses that do not complete it properly, but are semantically related to the proper word
3. responses that do not complete it properly & are not semantically related to the proper word |
|
|
Term
| bifrontal patients results on Hayling B Test |
|
Definition
| more frequently completed the sentence with an appropriate word; also, would sometimes use a semantically related word even if not totally correct; demonstrating a form of environmental dependence (where the sentence being set up is the "environment") & could also be poor reflex suppression |
|
|
Term
| controls results on Hayling B Test |
|
Definition
| more frequently had non-semantic related words that completed the task correctly |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| words would be shown & subjects are told to either say the word written out or the color that the word was written in; patients were tested on time (in seconds) to name 24 items |
|
|
Term
| Stroop Task: prefrontal patients reults |
|
Definition
| in the conflict circumstance, they went terribly slow on this condition |
|
|
Term
| 3 categories in Stroop Task |
|
Definition
1. name the colors of dots
2. name the colors of non-color words
3. name the colors of noncongruent color words |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| patients would have to make saccades either to a target (pro-saccade condition) or away from a target (anti-saccade condition) |
|
|
Term
| antisaccade task: frontal patients results |
|
Definition
| make pro-saccades (eye movements to flashed targets) at normal latency |
|
|
Term
| antisaccade task: temporal lobe patients vs frontal patients pro-saccade task |
|
Definition
| temporal lobe patients --> slower, longer RTs than frontal lobe patients |
|
|
Term
| antisaccade task: temporal lobe patients vs frontal patients anti-saccade condition |
|
Definition
| opposite results from pro-saccade: prefrontal patients have elevated RTs, temporal lobe patients do not |
|
|
Term
| the time axis in pro-saccade was faster or slower than the anti-saccade time axis (antisaccade task) |
|
Definition
| MUCH faster (even for the temporal lobe RTs) |
|
|
Term
| 3 regions upon which language draws |
|
Definition
1. phonological
2. semantic
3. syntactic |
|
|
Term
| 2 places where we do not see language task light up in fMRI |
|
Definition
1. sensory cortices
2. subcortical areas |
|
|
Term
| why do you lose some specificity when you do fMRI studies? |
|
Definition
| you must align brains to each other but anatomy is slightly different from person to person |
|
|
Term
| Juch et al study that mapped where different anatomical areas were across a group of participants |
|
Definition
| even though areas were close, there was still a bit of spread across the exact location |
|
|
Term
| Ojemann et al study that stimulated different areas in the brain & looked for how many people that stimulation caused a language effect |
|
Definition
| showed heterogeneity of population! example: stimulated 40+ patients & only 27 showed effects for a certain area |
|
|
Term
| Fedorenko & Kanwisher proposed that the field had not made much headway in identifying the language network because _______ |
|
Definition
| researchers have not been localizing language in individuals |
|
|
Term
| 2 contrasting tasks suggested by Fedorenko to look for language centers that did not actually work |
|
Definition
1. contrast between word lists & pronounceable non-word lists (targeting word-level meaning)
2. contrast between sentences & word lists (targeting sentence-level meaning) |
|
|
Term
| do fMRI findings support or challenge domain specificity & the idea of a fixed neural architecture for language? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 arguments that helped argue against domain specificity for language |
|
Definition
1. we observe distributed neural activity for speech processing, lexical processing, syntax, & semantic processing (Blumstein)
2. areas across the distributed network respond to multiple components |
|
|
Term
Sadato study regarding neural plasticity
*Bedny did a similar study |
|
Definition
| congenitally blind individuals recruit occipital cortex in processing Braille (sighted individuals show deactivation) & language |
|
|
Term
| does neural plasticity contribute to or against the argument for domain specificity? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is there an immutable neural architecture for language? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does neural architecture for language change across the lifespan? |
|
Definition
| auditory language input in 1-2 day olds is more bilateral, adults is more left hemisphere specific |
|
|
Term
Sheppard study regarding second-language learning
*Wong did a similar study |
|
Definition
| progression from bilateral to left hemisphere dominance during the learning process; the progression correlates with how well the language has been learned |
|
|
Term
| 3 regions we can distinguish in terms of functional profiles of language |
|
Definition
1. sensory language regions (in auditory & visual cortices)
2. speech articulation regions
3. "higher-level" processing regions |
|
|
Term
| 4 different possibilities for how language networks exist (Fedorenko) |
|
Definition
1. separate groups of regions that work together specific for a task
2. regions themselves respond to different kinds of tasks, however they share a unique connectivity pattern depending on the task being done
3. some regions are domain general that connect to all the other regions for all tasks (acts in an almost modulatory manner), other regions remain in their domain specific roles with their specific connectivity
4. some regions are domain general BUT they interact with different networks at different tasks (as opposed to remaining connected to all at all times) |
|
|
Term
| is reading evolutionarily ancient or recent? |
|
Definition
| recent! (maybe only 10,000 years versus 100,000 years!) |
|
|
Term
| prefrontal cortex activations during lexical decisions (Fiebach) |
|
Definition
non-words > high frequency words
low frequency > non-words |
|
|
Term
| Fiez discovered an interaction between ______ & _______ in the amount of activation elicited while processing words |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is the visual word form area (VWFA) found? |
|
Definition
| ventral part of the left ventral temporal cortex |
|
|
Term
| does the VWFA respond more strongly to words or consonants? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does the VWFA respond more strongly to the left or right visual field? |
|
Definition
| equally (despite being in the left hemisphere) |
|
|
Term
| Price: VWFA response to learned letters vs pseudo-letters |
|
Definition
| response to learned letters (or true fonts) compared to pseudo-letters (or false fonts) of comparable visual complexity |
|
|
Term
| Dehaene: VWFA repetition priming |
|
Definition
| it response to both upper & lower case letters even when visual dissimilar (e.g. "a" primes "A" more than "e" primes "A") |
|
|
Term
| Dehaene: VWFA subliminal presentation of words |
|
Definition
| activates the area (suggests that it is accessed automatically) |
|
|
Term
| Bentin: VWFA electrophysiological data regarding when the region is activated in word reading |
|
Definition
| compared true & false fonts to suggest that the region is activated early (around 150-200 ms after stimulus onset) |
|
|
Term
| Reich: VWFA response to Braille |
|
Definition
| does this in congenitally blind |
|
|
Term
| Dehaene: VWFA dependence on experience |
|
Definition
| left lateralization depends on level of literacy |
|
|
Term
| Van der Haegen: VWFA dependence on interaction with spoken language |
|
Definition
| in left handers, it falls in language-dominant hemisphere |
|
|
Term
| Borghesani et al language task |
|
Definition
| words would be shown on a screen & asked subjects to read/process them; looked at different regions involved in different tasks (word length, implied real-world size, semantic category, semantic cluster) |
|
|
Term
| Borghesani et al language task: as we move from word length --> perceptual --> semantic category --> semantic clusters how does activated area in the brain change? |
|
Definition
| starts in visual cortex & moves more anterior eventually up to temporal cortex |
|
|
Term
| Borghesani organization principle of language processing |
|
Definition
| conceptual taxonomic information encoded in mid & anterior temporal areas, including ATL; anterior temporal regions become progressively invariant to perceptual features & more sensitive to conceptual dimensions |
|
|
Term
| learning a new word vs retrieving it one month later --> brain activation looks the same or different? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do humans & monkeys have homologous prefrontal areas? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
symptoms related to executive control of behavior come after ______ lesions
symptoms related to emotional/social behavior come after ______ lesions |
|
Definition
| dorsolateral prefrontal; orbitofrontal/ventral medial |
|
|
Term
| working memory is thought to reside in ______ cortex |
|
Definition
| dorsolateral (not necessarily orbitofrontal) |
|
|
Term
| the ______ has a good seat to control executive control processes that are seen in behavior |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how is motor cortex different from sensory areas? |
|
Definition
| involved in maintaining states & also in dynamic patterns of action |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a system for holding information on-line (phonological loop, visuo-spatial scratchpad, episodic buffer) & manipulating it (central executive) |
|
|
Term
| working memory is widely thought to depend on a _______ mechanism |
|
Definition
| state-based (the brain enters a stable pattern of activity mediated by an attractor mechanism) |
|
|
Term
| is the working memory of large or small capacity? |
|
Definition
| limited (magic number 7 plus or minus 2) |
|
|
Term
| is working memory the same or distinct from episodic memory? from the sense that something is familiar or recent? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does HM have an intact working memory? |
|
Definition
| yes (he & other medial temporal lobe amnesics) |
|
|
Term
| working memory can be tested in ______ task |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Kajima et al: monkey was sitting in cage; in front of cage was a cable with a couple of food wells; he would watch experimenter put a peanut/raisin under one of the wells; a curtain would cover the wells; the curtain would be raised after a delay; monkey would choose one food well to try to find the one with the food |
|
Definition
| the piece of cortex critical for delayed response task in monkeys was cortex above/below/within principal sulcus (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) |
|
|
Term
| Kajima et al food well delay response task: do we see a big or small effect in taking out dorsolateral prefrontal cortex? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| results: experimenters repeated the monkey delayed response task with humans that had issues in various brain regions (used a penny instead of food though) |
|
Definition
| frontal patients had a lot more errors compared to other sets of patients (including patients who were amnesics from various conditions) |
|
|
Term
| Pellegrine & Wise: spatial match-to-sample task |
|
Definition
| at the beginning of the trial, the monkey sits with the manipulandum at the center --> LED in one possible spot surrounding the center flashes --> several hundred second milliseconds had intervening "distractor" flashes at other locations --> monkey waits to respond until flash occurs at same location as original sample flash --> monkey moves manipulandum out to that location |
|
|
Term
| Pellegrine & Wise: spatial match-to-sample results (recording from dorsolateral prefrontal neurons) |
|
Definition
1. some encoded the location being remembered or attended to as distinct from the location of the target of the planned response
2. some continue to fire when the sample was in their field even after nonmatch probes occur at other locations
3. some fired more for sample & response in field; some fired more for sample in field but response out of field |
|
|
Term
| Constantinidis & Steinmate: spatial delayed match to sample task |
|
Definition
| monkeys saw a sample, then waited to respond until one of the subsequent probes appeared at the same location |
|
|
Term
| Constantinidis & Steinmate: spatial delayed match to sample task results (recording from parietal neurons) |
|
Definition
| selective for a sample at a given location fire only until the first nonmatch probe is presented |
|
|
Term
| key difference between parietal & PFC neurons in delayed match to sample task |
|
Definition
| parietal neuron appears to be able to be distracted by the distractors...this was not true for PFC where they were able to hold onto the sample throughout the distractors! |
|
|
Term
| potential confound in Constantinidis & Steinmate spatial delayed match to sample task |
|
Definition
| nearly always, the location being remembered is confounded by the location being attended to & the movement being planned...what about other kinds of working memory? |
|
|
Term
| object working memory task: Petrides |
|
Definition
| monkey must hold in mind objects...not locations! |
|
|
Term
| object working memory task: Petrides results |
|
Definition
| prefrontal monkeys fail on tests of working memory but not passive familiarity; dorsolateral PFC lesions --> percent goes down to virtually chance for working memory task but not for passive familiarity task |
|
|
Term
| object working memory task: Petrides results explanation |
|
Definition
in working memory, monkey must remember which he chose
in passive familiarity, monkey can simply rely on the sense of if something is familiar or not |
|
|
Term
| Petrides & Milner: human object working memory task |
|
Definition
| subject would circle any object on page 1, circle a different object on page 2, etc. (every page would have the same 12 objects or words on it, sometimes in different positions though) |
|
|
Term
| Petrides results: human object working memory task |
|
Definition
| left hemisphere frontal lobe lesions did significantly the worst (**) --> left temporal lobe with major hippocampal damage also had significantly worse performance (*) |
|
|
Term
| Miller et al object match to sample task results |
|
Definition
| prefrontal neurons selective for a given sample-object continue to fire even after nonmatch probes - unlike IT neurons; PFC carries the steadfast representation of the identity of the sample, but in the posterior cortex (in this case, IT), the firing is fickle |
|
|
Term
| Miller et al object match to sample task |
|
Definition
| monkeys would perform object match to sample; sat facing a screen --> would see a series of images --> first image served as "sample" followed by a succession of "probes" --> when sample re-appeared, he would release hand from lever |
|
|
Term
| why did Miller et al introduce the monkey to a different kind of sequence where nonmatch probes could repeat in the object match to sample task? |
|
Definition
| to test whether the task was using working memory or simply testing for repetition! |
|
|
Term
| Ran et al experimental goal |
|
Definition
| "what" only (object information) vs "where" only (spatial information) vs both --> looking for what PFC neurons cared about |
|
|
Term
| Ran et al what vs where task |
|
Definition
| monkey would be shown an image --> "what" delay --> two new imaged would appear in different locations (one matched, one did not) --> "where" delay --> monkey would make a saccade in the direction of where the matched item was |
|
|
Term
| Ran et al what vs where task results |
|
Definition
| there may be a gradient with spatially sensitive neurons concentrated dorsally where parietal inputs predominate & object sensitive neurons concentrated more ventrally where inferotemporal inputs predominate |
|
|
Term
| why did Ran et al do their what vs where task? |
|
Definition
| there has been debate about whether PFC is functionally organized according to a principal of domain specificity whereby different subregions perform the same function (working memory) on different domains of information |
|
|
Term
| Courtney et al human prefrontal cortex working memory task |
|
Definition
| tested phasic visual activation (should be strongest when any samples or probes are presented), phasic activation specific to faces (should be strongest when any faces are shown, not when scrambled faces are shown) & tonic/prolonged activation specific to working memory (long activation throughout task requiring working memory, not any activity when working memory not required) |
|
|
Term
| Courtney et al human prefrontal cortex working memory task results |
|
Definition
phasic visual responses: farthest back in cortical surface
face specific pattern: farther forward
tonic working memory: farthest forward
*confirming neuron-based studies in monkeys in fMRI studies in humans* |
|
|
Term
| Olson: Sternberg working memory task with monkeys |
|
Definition
a series of samples is presented --> probe is presented --> monkey must report whether probe matches any of the items in the initial series
*did it with three probes where one was identical to preceding samples, two did not match* |
|
|
Term
| Olson: Sternberg working memory task with monkeys results |
|
Definition
| recorded from PFC to see if it represented all the samples being held in working memory --> results were negative |
|
|
Term
| Olson: Sternberg working memory task with monkeys conclusions/interpretations |
|
Definition
| neuronal activity in PFC represents the information being currently processed |
|
|
Term
| Miller et al working memory task |
|
Definition
| monkey looked at screen --> shape appeared (a rule cue...different shapes instructed the monkey that when a subsequent display of moving colored dots appeared, should he report their direction or their color) --> dots appeared --> monkey would indicate with saccade what his choice was (right meant either up movement or red dots, left meant either down movement or green dots) |
|
|
Term
| Miller et al working memory task results |
|
Definition
visual areas--> activity was image-dependent without rule selectivity
parietal cortex --> rule selective activity began to apepar
frontal eye field & dorsolateral PFC --> rule selectivity became robust |
|
|
Term
| Miller et al working memory task conclusions/interpretations |
|
Definition
| the decades of studies that have been dedicated to characterizing neuronal activity in PFC related to working memory were studying the neural correlates of task set |
|
|
Term
| 7 deficits observed in patients with prefrontal injury |
|
Definition
1. inefficiency (doing things in a suboptimal order)
2. rule-breaking (not following the stated rules of the task)
3. perseveration (persisting in an approach although it is no longer working)
4. capriciousness (abandoning an approach although it is working)
5. vacancy (poverty or lack of fluency of thought or speech)
6. poor reflex suppression (inability to prevent an automatic responses to stimuli)
7. environmental dependence (behavior driven by habitual responses to objects |
|
|
Term
| overall conclusion for why we see the deficits we see with prefrontal injury |
|
Definition
| all can be boiled down to engagement with the task at hand |
|
|
Term
| Cannon & Bard "sham" rage animals |
|
Definition
| decorticate but have an intact diencephalon including the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cingulate gyrus --> hippocampus --> hypothalamus (mammillary bodies) --> anterior thalamic nuclei --> back to cingulate gyrus |
|
|
Term
| Kluver & Bucy: 3 symptoms of Kluver-Bucy syndrome seen after amygdalectomy |
|
Definition
1. tameness
2. undiscriminating sexual activity
3. strong oral tendencies |
|
|
Term
| 3 original things in MacLean's limbic system |
|
Definition
1. limbic cortex
2. hypothalamus
3. amygdala |
|
|
Term
| was the amygdala connected to all the cortex initially highlighted by MacLean? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do the hippocampus & amygdala adjoin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 main zones of cortex strongly connected to the amygdala |
|
Definition
1. ventral cortex in temporal lobe
2. ventral cortex in frontal lobe |
|
|
Term
| does the posterior cingulate cortex have strong connections with amygdala? |
|
Definition
| no (despite being in MacLean's original limbic cortex) |
|
|
Term
| 8 parts of viscero-homeostatic system |
|
Definition
1. visceral sensory ganglia
2. visceral sensory nuclei
3. hypothalamus
4. visceral motor nuclei
5. autonomic ganglia
6. blood
7. amygdala
8. orbitofrontal cortex |
|
|
Term
| what is the purpose of the viscero-homeostatic system? |
|
Definition
| works together to sense when things are going wrong (ex. you are dehydrated) & connects out to cortical areas to have you do something about it (ex. go get a drink) |
|
|
Term
| how was amygdala initially linked to importance for emotion-related processes? |
|
Definition
| fear conditioning studies in rats (THINK: my paradigm at Penn) --> more so pairing tone with shock as opposed to just the environment |
|
|
Term
| LeDoux et al fear conditioning lesion study |
|
Definition
| increase in blood pressure & freezing behavior (to CS+ after training) were measured after various lesions |
|
|
Term
| LeDoux et al fear conditioning lesion study conclusions |
|
Definition
| the amygdala, insofar as reflexive responses to fear are concerned, appears to be a generalist & exerts its effects via downstream areas |
|
|
Term
| Killerus et al fear conditioning study results |
|
Definition
| two skeletomotor response to electric shock - freezing & learning not to engage in shock-eliciting behavior - appear to depend respectively on the central nucleus (which projects downstream) & the lateral/basolateral nuclei (which communicate with the cortex); central nucleus lesion (central nucleus projects downstream to hypothalamus & central gray) --> reduction of freezing, no reduction in avoiding bad lever; basolateral nucleus lesion --> freezing behavior was intact, but avoidance of the bad lever was way down; lesions of both structures --> both behavioral reductions |
|
|
Term
| Killerus et al fear conditioning study task |
|
Definition
| rats could push two levers --> both would lead to food, but one would sometimes also lead to a shock followed by a tone (CS+); tested for two behaviors (conditioned suppression - freezing behavior & conditioned punishment - avoiding pressing CS+ lever); used no lesion rats/basolateral nucleus lesion rats/central nucleus lesion rats |
|
|
Term
| human fear conditioning study task |
|
Definition
| visual or auditory stimuli predicting appearance of aversive stimulus (boat horn) |
|
|
Term
| human fear conditioning study task results |
|
Definition
normal controls --> strong galvanic skin response to CS+, no galvanic skin response to CS-
hippocampal amnesia --> same responses as controls!
damage to amygdala --> no response to CS-, no response to CS+ |
|
|
Term
| human fear conditioning study task conclusions |
|
Definition
| humans with amygdala damage do not have conditioned fear |
|
|
Term
| do humans with amygdala damage have conscious fear? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Bear described patients with temporal lobe epilepsy has having _______ |
|
Definition
| increased religious flair |
|
|
Term
| Trimble & Freeman: compared temporal lobe epilepsy patients who were either described as "high" vs "low" on religiosity --> ? |
|
Definition
| those with higher religiosity were higher in pretty much every other temporal lobe symptom as described by Bear (hypergraphia for example...the increased tendency to write EVERYTHING down) |
|
|
Term
| is the orbitofrontal cortex strongly connected with the amygdala? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is the orbitofrontal cortex in the temporal lobe? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Rolls orbitofrontal cortex experiment |
|
Definition
| would hold up foods to monkey & record from orbitofrontal cortex |
|
|
Term
| how did Rolls test whether OFC was really responding to a certain item or whether it was responding to just liking/wanting that item? |
|
Definition
| would make something aversive due to satiety --> recorded neural activity & compared those to behavioral responses |
|
|
Term
| Critchley & Rolls OFC results |
|
Definition
| olfactory, gustatory, & visual responses of monkey OFC neurons are not simply sensory but rather change in strength as a function of the incentive strength of the stimulus as determined by the amount of the corresponding juice recently consumed |
|
|
Term
| Critchley & Rolls OFC conclusions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Tremblay & Schultz OFC results |
|
Definition
| OF activity related to anticipation of a given foodstuff depends on how good it is relative to other foodstuff available during the session; raisin vs apple pattern --> firing would be strong for raising pattern, weak for apple pattern; apple vs cabbage pattern --> firing would be strong for apple pattern, weak for cabbage pattern |
|
|
Term
| Tremblay & Schultz OFC task |
|
Definition
| monkey would sit at a screen & a pattern would show up on the screen indicating what food was behind the screen; recording from OFC |
|
|
Term
| Tremblay & Schultz OFC conclusions |
|
Definition
| OFC firing depends on context...which is the preferred item in that setting! |
|
|
Term
| EVR (patient with orbitofrontal damage): could he do the Wisconsin Card Sort Task? |
|
Definition
| yes (unlike patients with dorsolateral prefrontal injury) |
|
|
Term
| EVR (patient with orbitofrontal damage): conclusions |
|
Definition
| OFC serves as a way of representing the value/desirability or aversiveness/undesirability of possible consequences ensuing from one's actions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| subject is presented with four stacks of cards, face-down, & is free to select cards from any stack (one at a time); stacks differ with the amount of reward the patients will get from a card & also with the amount of penalty that will be imposed occasionally following the reward |
|
|
Term
| how do patients with OFC damage perform on the Bechara card sort task? |
|
Definition
| they fail to adapt to an optimal strategy in a card game, continuing to draw from decks (A & B) with a larger immediate return but still a larger intermittent penalty |
|
|
Term
| Bechara card sort task results |
|
Definition
| control subjects learn that A & B should be avoided, C & D are good; patient EVR --> initially selects from A & B, continues to select from A & B |
|
|
Term
| Bechara card sort task interpretation |
|
Definition
| EVR does not acquire, because of his experience with decks A & B, a sort of warning signal coming form OFC that the outcome would not be good |
|
|
Term
| Bechara et al: card sort task results |
|
Definition
| failure to display an anticipatory galvanic skin response before drawing from a "bad" deck in a card game - in patients with orbital & medial prefrontal injury; normal controls showed higher galvanic response to "bad" decks vs "good" decks |
|
|
Term
| Bechara et al: card sort task conclusions |
|
Definition
| OFC plays a critical role in announcing whether the consequences of an action you are contemplating are likely to be good or likely to be bad --> these neurons are responsible for making good choices |
|
|
Term
| Olds & Milner mesencephalic reticular formation (MRF) experiment |
|
Definition
| implanted stimulating electrodes in MRF of behaving rats & delivered stimulation every time the rat went to a certain location in its enclosure |
|
|
Term
| Olds & Milner MRF experiment: self-stimulating rats results |
|
Definition
| once rat could self-stimulate, it continued to self-stimulate until it had stimulated an excess of 50,000 pulses! |
|
|
Term
| how was the medial forebrain bundle discovered? |
|
Definition
| pathway in which electrical stimulation was effective for self-stimulation (rat experiments) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| innervates striatum & frontal cortex with dopamine! |
|
|
Term
| main important places where DA neurons come from |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| it was the axons of ______ fibers that were activated by the electrical stimulation when electrical stimulation was reinforcing & thus gave rise to self-stimulating behavior |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| optogenetic self-stimulation experiments results |
|
Definition
| confirmed Olds & Milner's experiments by having ChR2 only in DA-containing neurons --> only the DA fibers would get the stimulation when mouse did a nose poke |
|
|
Term
| Schultz reward experiment |
|
Definition
| recorded from VTA & studied neurons' activity in relation to various reward settings |
|
|
Term
| Schultz reward experiment results |
|
Definition
| as amounts of reward increased, firing rate of neurons increased; neurons also responded to cues that reward would subsequently be delivered |
|
|
Term
| Schultz reward experiment conclusions |
|
Definition
| DA neurons is reinforcement, not simply signaling pleasure |
|
|
Term
| Schultz food well reward experiment |
|
Definition
| monkey sat in front of food well --> was required to release a lever he had been holding down & then reach into food well & if it contained food, take it out & eat it |
|
|
Term
| Schultz food well reward experiment results |
|
Definition
| DA neurons fire when the monkey touched the food (when he discovered that there would be a reward at the end of the trial) |
|
|
Term
| Schultz food well reward experiment conclusions |
|
Definition
| the thing that made the DA neurons fire was the first cue/event indicating that there would be a reward at the end of the trial |
|
|
Term
| where did Schultz record from in studying expected vs unexpected rewards? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Schultz expected vs unexpected rewards experiment conclusions |
|
Definition
| information carried in DA neurons is required for RL! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learning only occurs if & only if the event that might be reinforcing is unexpected |
|
|
Term
| Schultz proving Rescorla-Wegner model task |
|
Definition
| monkey learned associations between one cue leading to reward & another cue not leading to reward (used anticipatory licking to indicate learning) --> image 1 is combined with new image but still leads to reward & image 2 is paired with new image but now it also leads to reward --> original images are taken away (leaving behind only the added stage 2 images) |
|
|
Term
| Schultz proving Rescorla-Wegner model results |
|
Definition
new image added with image 1 --> there was no learning that the added image means reward!
new image added with image 2 --> monkey learned that this meant reward!
activity in VTA mirrored anticipatory licking behavior! |
|
|
Term
| Schultz proving Rescorla-Wegner model implications |
|
Definition
| DA neurons carry a signal crucial for RL in the Rescorla-Wegner framework through which learning is carried in difference between what animal expects & what he gets |
|
|
Term
| are DA neurons sensitive to the probability of reward? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| as cues indicate higher & higher probability --> how does DA neuron firing change? |
|
Definition
| fire more strongly at those cues |
|
|
Term
| probability experiment task |
|
Definition
| monkey maintained fixation while a field of moving dots was displayed (motion of dots could be highly coherent or they could be random or anything in between) --> monkey's job was to report whether the net motion of display was to right or left |
|
|
Term
| probability experiment results |
|
Definition
| neurons in VTA fired differentially as result of coherence of the display |
|
|
Term
| are punishments reinforcing? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do DA neurons appear to encode punitive events comparably to rewarding events? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| punishment experiment (recording from VTA) results |
|
Definition
unpredicted juice --> much higher increase in DA response compared to predicted juice
unpredicted aversive --> no different from predicted aversive in terms of decreased DA firing |
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Term
| the idea that DA enhances the drive to get reward is supported in part by observations on ______ mice |
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Definition
| hyperdopaminergic DAT knockdown mice |
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Term
| Berridge salience DA experiment results |
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Definition
| DAT knockdown mice work harder for reward - in support of the incentive salience hypothesis; learning to nose-poke a port from which food has already been delivered occurs at about the same rat in DAT knockdown mice as in WT controls - contrary to the learning hypothesis; elicitation by a sweet solution of orofacial movements indicating liking is no more common in DAT knockdown mice than in WT controls - contrary to the hedonic hypothesis |
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Term
| in monkeys choosing between cues associated with different probabilities of reward, DA neurons encode the value of the chosen cue relative to the value of the unchosen cue: this is ______ information |
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Definition
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Term
| Schultz reward discrepancy DA task |
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Definition
| monkey would look at screen --> two images would appear --> monkey would fixate to one --> image chosen would persist --> either a small or large reward would be presented |
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Term
| if information serviceable in value-based decision-making is not represented in VTA DA neurons, where is it represented? |
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Definition
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Term
| neurons in ______ carry signals including both the values of the offers & the thin the monkey has chosen given the two offers |
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Definition
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Term
| good-based vs action-based neural activity |
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Definition
good-based: monkey decides between the two juices & then, having chosen one, plans an action
action-based: monkey assigns a value to each of the actions & then chooses based on the action |
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Term
| can you dissociated between good- & action-based models on task where monkey chooses either left or right juice? |
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Definition
| no (because the action & the indicator are the same) |
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Term
| Padoa-Schioppa value-based decisions task |
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Definition
| separated in time when the two offers were presented & which two responses would be required for obtaining those offers |
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Term
| what was the goal of Padoa-Schioppa's action selection experiment |
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Definition
| to tease apart the processes of choosing between two juice offers & choosing between two response directions |
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Term
| Padoa-Schioppa action selection experiment results |
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Definition
| decisions based on the values of the two juices are represented prior to any decision about the actions required to get them! |
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Term
| representation of anticipated value in OFC experiment task |
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Definition
| monkeys chose between cues which indicated by their color the flavor of the juice being offered |
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Term
| representation of anticipated value in OFC experiment results (Padoa-Schioppa) |
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Definition
| some neurons in OFC represent the juice chosen by the monkey; some neurons in OFC represent the chosen value; some neurons in OFC represent how valuable an offer is |
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