Term
| Traditional microbial taxonomy (was or was not) rooted in evolutionary relatedness. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In traditional microbial taxonomy, naming referenced... |
|
Definition
| diseases they caused or processes they performed.
Ex. Mycobacterium tuberculosis |
|
|
Term
| the type of taxonomy used today for microbes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In polyphasic taxonomy, microbes are categorized based on... |
|
Definition
-Genotype
-phenotype
-evolutionary relatedness (rRNA) |
|
|
Term
| GROUPINGS WE WILL CONSIDER in microbial diversity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Largest grouping- Bacteria/Archaea/Eukarya |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large group of related microbes (evolutionary) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Group of closely related microbes, comprised of several species with different properties |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some MAJOR BACTERIAL PHYLA |
|
Definition
-Deep-branching thermophiles
-Cyanobacteria
-Gram-positive bacteria
-Proteobacteria
-Deep-branching Gram-negative bacteria
-Spirochetes
-Chlamydiae, Planctomycetes, and Verrumicrobia |
|
|
Term
| the three bacterial phyla we will focus on in this course |
|
Definition
-Deep-branching thermophiles
-Cyanobacteria
-Gram-positive bacteria |
|
|
Term
| is the group DEEP BRANCHING THERMOPHILES one phylum or more than one phylum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
Definition
-Diverged the earliest from ancestral archaea and eukaryotes
-Fastest doubling rates of all bacteria
-High mutation rate |
|
|
Term
| which group of bacteria Diverged the earliest from ancestral archaea and eukaryotes? |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
| which group of bacteria is the Fastest doubling rates of all bacteria? |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
| name a group of bacteria with a High mutation rate |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
| which group of bacteria diverged the earliest? |
|
Definition
| DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of PHYLUM AQUIFICAE |
|
Definition
-“Water maker”
-Oxidize hydrogen gas with molecular oxygen to make water
-Ether linked membrane lipids (usually found in Archaea) |
|
|
Term
| which bacteria phylum is “Water maker”? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacteria phylum oxidizes hydrogen gas with molecular oxygen to make water? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacteria phylum has ether linked membrane lipids (usually found in Archaea)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| PHYLUM AQUIFICAE is unique in that it has... |
|
Definition
membrane lipid links composed of ether
-this feature is usually associated with Archaeal organisms |
|
|
Term
| name a bacterial species that belongs to the phylum Aquificae |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Thermocrinis ruber |
|
Definition
-all the properties of the bacterial phylum
-On standard lab media, it grows as a bacilli (rod)
-In its natural environment of streams (water currents), it grows as long thin intertwined filaments.
-82-88˚C temperature preference
-prefers a warm environment rich in water flow
-as mat of “pink streamers” |
|
|
Term
| why Thermocrinis ruber change morphology on different surfaces |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thermocrinis ruber growing as rods on standard lab media |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thermocrinis ruber growing as long, intertwined filaments in water currents (streams) |
|
|
Term
| why was Thermocrinis ruber initially hard to study? |
|
Definition
| because growing as rods on standard lab media and growing as long intertwined filaments in water currents (streams) made scientists believe they were culturing the wrong organism |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
Definition
-“Toga”
-Loosely bound sheath-Absence of “classical” outer membrane
-Mosaic genomes (bacterial-archaeal)
-all the properties of deep branching thermophiles
-contain the unique characteristic of membrane “sheaths” that balloon away from the cell at the cell poles |
|
|
Term
| which bacterial phylum contains Loosely bound sheath-Absence of “classical” outer membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacterial phylum has Mosaic genomes (bacterial-archaeal)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which bacterial phylum contains the unique characteristic of membrane “sheaths” that balloon away from the cell at the cell poles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the difference between the sheaths in PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE and classical Gram negative outer membranes |
|
Definition
| the sheaths in PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE balloon away from the cell at the cell poles |
|
|
Term
| why do members of PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE have a ballooning membrane? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Thermotoga maritima |
|
Definition
-One of the highest recorded growth temperatures (90˚C)
-During growth “sheath” extends from the poles.
-Outer envelope “grows”
-Cytoplasmic growth “stalls” |
|
|
Term
| has one of the highest recorded growth temperatures (90˚C) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During growth “sheath” extends from the poles. |
|
Definition
| Thermotoga maritima
I think the entire PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
|
Term
| Outer envelope “grows” while the Cytoplasmic growth “stalls” |
|
Definition
| Thermotoga maritima
I think the entire PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| member of PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a species in the PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a species in the PHYLUM AQUIFICAE |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some phyla within the group DEEP-BRANCHING THERMOPHILES |
|
Definition
-PHYLUM AQUIFICAE
-PHYLUM THERMOTOGAE
-PHYLUM CHLOROFELXI |
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Thermotoga maritima in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Thermocrinis ruber in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| member of PHYLUM CHLOROFELXI |
|
|
Term
| bacteria in PHYLUM CHLOROFELXI grow as... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name a member of phylum CHLOROFELXI |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Chloroflexus aurantiacus in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Chloroflexus aurantiacus |
|
Definition
-Lower layers of microbial mats (Under Cyanobacteria)
-Gram negative (atypical)
-No outer membrane
-50-65˚C temperature range |
|
|
Term
| Chloroflexus aurantiacus is found in... |
|
Definition
| microbial mats (biofilms). |
|
|
Term
| parts of the mats Chloroflexus aurantiacus is usually associated with |
|
Definition
| non-surface areas of the mats |
|
|
Term
| what bacteria are found on the surface of mats? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chloroflexus aurantiacus is atypical of phylum Chloroflexi in that... |
|
Definition
-it has no outer membrane
-it is not Gram positive (no teichoic acids/no thick peptidoglycan) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| found in lower layers of microbial mats, usually under Cyanobacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is Chloroflexus aurantiacus Gram-positive or Gram-negative? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name a bacterium that has no outer membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the prefered temperature range for Chloroflexus aurantiacus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the environment preferred by Chloroflexus aurantiacus |
|
Definition
| warm stream environments, such as Yellowstone's Octopus Spring |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
-Largest, most diverse group of photosynthetic bacteria
-The only ones who are oxygenic
-Thick peptidoglycan (almost as thick as Gram +)
-Appear green because of the predominant blue and red absorption by chlorophylls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Largest, most diverse group of photosynthetic bacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The only bacteria who are oxygenic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Thickness of peptidoglycan cell wall in PHYLUM CYANOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
| almost as thick as Gram + |
|
|
Term
| Appear green because of the predominant blue and red absorption by chlorophylls |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cyanobacteria share many kinds of ______ associations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Cyanobacteria participate in this type of community |
|
Definition
| multilayered microbial mats |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two or more organisms living in close association and providing benefits to each other |
|
|
Term
| where Cyanobacteria are found in microbial mats |
|
Definition
| usually the surface layer |
|
|
Term
| how do organisms in a mutualistic relationship grow without each other? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cyanobacteria and diatoms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Purple sulfur proteobacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long-wavelength purple sulfur bacteria |
|
|
Term
| some ways Cyanobacteria can grow |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pleurocapsa pond Cyanobacteria Cyanobacteria growing as colonies |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Oscillatoria Cyanobacteria growing as filaments |
|
|
Term
| this Cyanobacteria forms filaments that consist of platelike cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this Cyanobacteria forms enormous aggregates that release baeocytes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Pleurocapsa forms enormous aggregates that release... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it forms filaments that consist of platelike cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it forms enormous aggregates that release baeocytes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| colonies of Chroococcus (a type of Cyanobacteria) |
|
|
Term
| how Cyanobacteria form colonies |
|
Definition
| they surround themselves with other single cells and encase the community in a layer of protective mucus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Specialized cells in filamentous Cyanobacteria used for nitrogen fixation |
|
|
Term
| when HETEROCYSTS are produced |
|
Definition
| when organism is nitrogen deprived |
|
|
Term
| how the heterocyst protects its ability to fix nitrogen |
|
Definition
| Thick heterocyst wall prevents O2 diffusion into heterocyst which would inactivate nitrogenase. |
|
|
Term
| why Cyanobacteria need heterocysts |
|
Definition
| because they live in oxygen rich environments and oxygen can inactivate the enzyme necessary for nitrogen fixation |
|
|
Term
| name a genus of Cyanobacteria that produces heterocysts |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some things Cyanobacteria may have |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some Cyanobacteria that contain thylakoids and carboxysomes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ accounts for 40%–50% of marine phototrophic biomass. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Prochlorococcus accounts for ______ of marine phototrophic biomass. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| name a species in phylum Cyanobacteria |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the temperature Synechococcus elongatus prefers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 distinct Gram-positive phyla |
|
Definition
-Phylum Firmicutes
-Phylum Actinobacteria |
|
|
Term
| difference between Phylum Firmicutes and Phylum Actinobacteria |
|
Definition
-members of Phylum Firmicutes are “Low-GC” species
-members of Phylum Actinobacteria “High-GC” species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| less than 50% GC (guanosine and cytosine) in their genomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| more than 50% GC (guanosine and cytosine) in their genomes |
|
|
Term
| characteristics of PHYLUM FIRMICUTES |
|
Definition
-Low-GC
-Many form endospores
-Many are pathogens |
|
|
Term
| name a species in PHYLUM FIRMICUTES` |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what phylum is Clostridium difficile in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dormant bacterial structures used to survive harsh environmental conditions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a bacterium that is a serious agent of human inflammation of the colon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Clostridium difficile survives in the gut |
|
Definition
| it forms endospores that survive for months or years in the colon and when the conditions become optimal for it (reduction of gut flora via antibiotic use) the spores will germinate to metabolically active bacteria |
|
|
Term
| when conditions become right for Clostridium difficile |
|
Definition
| reduction of gut flora via antibiotic use |
|
|
Term
| what Clostridium difficile endospores do when conditions become right |
|
Definition
| they germinate to metabolically active bacteria |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of GENUS CLOSTRIDIUM |
|
Definition
-Rods
-obligate anaerobes
-Spore forming (some have terminal drumstick) |
|
|
Term
| what causes the drumstick shape in some Clostridium spores? |
|
Definition
| ensospore formation at one pole of the cell
As Clostridium cells sporulate, the endospore swells, forming a characteristic “drumstick” appearance. |
|
|
Term
| As ______ cells sporulate, the endospore swells, forming a characteristic “drumstick” appearance. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| As Clostridium cells sporulate, the endospore swells, forming a characteristic “______” appearance. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Clostridium botulium |
|
Definition
-Agent of foodborne botulism
-Common in environment/soil
-Spores allow dormant survival until ideal conditions are met (anaerobic) |
|
|
Term
| the agent of foodborne botulism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where Clostridium botulium can be found |
|
Definition
| Common in environment/soil |
|
|
Term
| how Clostridium botulium survives until conditions are right |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the right conditions for Clostridium botulium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| common source of Clostridium botulium infecting host |
|
Definition
| Improperly preserved foods |
|
|
Term
| what Clostridium botulium does to the host |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| bacteria that produces botulism toxin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what botulism toxin (botox) does to the host |
|
Definition
-Blocks nerve function
-Double vision
-drooping eyelids
-paralysis |
|
|
Term
what do these arrows point to?
[image] |
|
Definition
| terminal drumstick shape of bacteria that belong to the genus Clostridium, phylum Firmicutes |
|
|
Term
| why it's dangerous for infants younger than one year to consume honey |
|
Definition
| because honey often contains Clostridium botulinum endospores and the gut microflora in infants is not mature enough to prevent their attachment |
|
|
Term
| infants account for ______ of botulism cases |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some treatments for botulism |
|
Definition
-Intensive care
-antitoxin |
|
|
Term
| how gut bacteria protect against botulism |
|
Definition
| it prevents the attachment of Clostridium botulinum endospores |
|
|
Term
| how infants younger than 1 year get botulism |
|
Definition
| Exposure to endospores or toxin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some things that can expose humans to botulism |
|
Definition
-Food-borne botulism, such as canned foods
-sources outside the body |
|
|
Term
| What happens when the Clostridium botulinum germinates (becomes vegetative)? |
|
Definition
| it grows, divides, and produces botulism toxin |
|
|
Term
| where in the body does Clostridium botulinum germinate? |
|
Definition
| the lower GI tract, where it's anaerobic |
|
|
Term
| Can you compare and contrast the different mechanisms of human botulism? |
|
Definition
| In infants, the immature gut flora allows the Clostridium botulinum to germinate and produce the botulism toxin. In adults, the endospore can only germinate outside the body, but the botulism toxin itself can be consumed and cause disease. |
|
|
Term
| The amount of Botox used for therapeutic use |
|
Definition
| micro amounts (microdosing) |
|
|
Term
| Some therapeutic uses for botox |
|
Definition
-treatment of Bell's palsy
-migraine headaches
-it can also be used for wrinkles, but that's cosmetic |
|
|
Term
| Some characteristics of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
-High-GC
-Form complex multicellular filaments.
-Some are acid-fast |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bacteria in PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA |
|
|
Term
| are members of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA high or low GC? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how members of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA grow |
|
Definition
| they form complex multicellular filaments |
|
|
Term
| a type of staining that works for some members of PHYLUM ACTINOBACTERIA |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which phylum is Genus Streptomyces in? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Genus Streptomyces |
|
Definition
-Aerobic
-Non motile
-Inhabit soil
-Produce geosmin, which produces a moist earth odor
-Nonpathogenic
-Grow onto and into their substratum. |
|
|
Term
| are members of Genus Streptomyces aerobic or anaerobic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are members of of Genus Streptomyces motile or non-motile? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where do members of of Genus Streptomyces live? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| members of Genus Streptomyces account for ______ of culturable soil microbes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are members of genus Streptomyces acid-fast or not? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| members of Genus Streptomyces produce ______, which produces a moist earth odor |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| members of Genus Streptomyces produce geosmin, which produces... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are members of Genus Streptomyces pathogenic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how members of Genus Streptomyces grow |
|
Definition
| they grow onto and into their substratum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some bacteria in genus Streptomyces |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| some colonies of genus Streptomyces
they are a combination of: raised/rigid/flat areas (not fuzzy!) |
|
|
Term
| the chromosomes in genus Streptomyces |
|
Definition
| linear chromosomes with telomeres |
|
|
Term
| a group of prokaryotes that have linear chromosomes with telomeres |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hairpin-looped telomere end of the linear chromosome in genus Streptomyces |
|
|
Term
| some details about the life cycle of genus Streptomyces |
|
Definition
-Vegetative cells form dense substrate mycelium in the soil.
-Nutrient limitation/stress induces growth up into the air- (aerial mycelium)
-Aerial mycelium “cannibalize” substrate mycelium for nutrients
-The secondary metabolites are medically useful. (Antibiotics/ Anticancer)
-Aerial mycelium can also form spores (arthrospores) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
|
Term
| In genus ______, vegetative cells form dense substrate mycelium in the soil. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, ______ cells form dense substrate mycelium in the soil. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, vegetative cells form dense ______ in the soil. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, ______ induces growth up into the air- (aerial mycelium) |
|
Definition
| Nutrient limitation/stress |
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, Nutrient limitation/stress induces growth up into the air- (______) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, ______ “cannibalize” substrate mycelium for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, Aerial mycelium “______” substrate mycelium for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus Streptomyces, Aerial mycelium “cannibalize” ______ for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus ______, Nutrient limitation/stress induces growth up into the air- (aerial mycelium) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In genus ______, Aerial mycelium “cannibalize” substrate mycelium for nutrients |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ______ produced by genus Streptomyces are medically useful. (Antibiotics/ Anticancer) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The secondary metabolites produced by genus ______ are medically useful. (Antibiotics/ Anticancer) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The secondary metabolites produced by genus Streptomyces are medically useful. (______) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ formed by genus Streptomyces can also form spores (arthrospores) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aerial mycelium formed by genus ______ can also form spores (arthrospores) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aerial mycelium formed by genus Streptomyces can also form spores (______) that can disperse in the wind to soil that is not nutrient-depleted. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A mass of hyphae (branched filaments) that extend above the surface and produces spores at the tips. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A mass of hyphae (branched filaments) that form a network below the surface of the soil |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spores produced by the aerial mycelium of Streptomyces bacteria that can disperse in the wind |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| erection of aerial hyphae |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sporulation septation and chromosome segregation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| spore germination into substrate mycelium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The modern antibiotic revolution began in ______ with the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The modern antibiotic revolution began in 1928 with the discovery of ______ by Alexander Fleming. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The modern antibiotic revolution began in 1928 with the discovery of penicillin by ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the antibiotic revolution began |
|
Definition
-A contaminating mold had inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus colonies on a plate.
-Fleming theorized that the mold released a substance that inhibited/killed the bacteria! |
|
|
Term
| Antibacterial agents should exhibit ______ toxicity. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Antibiotics should affect... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some aspects of bacterial physiology antibiotics can affect |
|
Definition
-Peptidoglycan.
-Differences in ribosome structure.
-Biochemical pathway missing in humans. |
|
|
Term
| some classes of antibiotics |
|
Definition
-Broad spectrum
-Narrow spectrum
-Bactericidal
-Bacteriostatic |
|
|
Term
| Broad spectrum antibiotics |
|
Definition
| antibiotics that are effective against many species |
|
|
Term
| Narrow spectrum antibiotics |
|
Definition
| antibiotics that are effective against few or a single species |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| antibiotics that kill target organisms |
|
|
Term
| Bacteriostatic antibiotics |
|
Definition
antibiotics that prevent growth of organisms
they don't themselves kill the intruder, but they slow down the bacterial replication such that the immune system can get rid of the intruder |
|
|
Term
| example of an antibiotic being both bactericidal and bacteriostatic |
|
Definition
| Some antibiotics are bactericidal at one concentration and bacteriostatic at another concentration. |
|
|
Term
| Can you describe a scenario in which a bacteriostatic drug would be the preferred antibiotic choice? |
|
Definition
1: to prevent the release of LPS from dying Gram-negative bacteria, if this is a Gram-negative infection
2: to preserve normal flora, especially since immune cells are very specific, even more so than antibiotics |
|
|
Term
| MINIMAL INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION (MIC) |
|
Definition
| the lowest concentration that prevents microbial growth |
|
|
Term
| the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) varies depending on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is determined |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does finding the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) tell you whether the antibiotic is bactericidal or bacteriostatic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| After testing Tetracycline for the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), how could you determine whether it is bactericidal or bacteriostatic? |
|
Definition
| Remove the antibiotic from the culture tubes and observe for growth. If it grows, it's bacteriostatic. If no growth, it's bactericidal. |
|
|
Term
| the steps of Peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
1: Precursors are made in the cytoplasm.
2: They are carried across the cell membrane by a lipid carrier: bactoprenol.
3: The precursors are polymerized to the existing cell wall structure by transglycosylases.
4: The peptide side chains are cross-linked by transpeptidases. |
|
|
Term
| the 1st step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| Precursors are made in the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
| the 2nd step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| Precursors are carried across the cell membrane by a lipid carrier: bactoprenol. |
|
|
Term
| the 3rd step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| The precursors are polymerized to the existing cell wall structure by transglycosylases. |
|
|
Term
| the 4th step of peptidoglycan synthesis |
|
Definition
| The peptide side chains are cross-linked by transpeptidases. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lipid carrier that carries peptidoglycan precursors across the cell membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polymerizes peptidoglycan precursors to the existing cell wall structure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the enzyme that cross-links the amino acids in peptidoglycan |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ointment that stops Peptidoglycan synthesis at step 2 by preventing the bactoprenol from being carried across the cell membrane. |
|
|
Term
| BACITRACIN is toxic if ingested, so how should it be used? |
|
Definition
| It must be used topically on the dermis. |
|
|
Term
| Staphylococcus aureus can cause ______ of the soft tissue. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Staphylococcus aureus can cause inflammation of the ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Does Staphylococcus aureus usually respond to penicillin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a type of Staphylococcus aureus that is a concern |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Methicillin (penicillin) resistant Staphylococcus aureus |
|
|
Term
| Staphylococcus aureus usually responds to... |
|
Definition
| penicillin-like drugs (Methicillin class) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the gene “mecA” (Penicillin-binding protein) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gene in MRSA that encodes mecA protein |
|
|
Term
| how the mecA protein protects MRSA from penicillin |
|
Definition
| it binds to penicillin so that penicillin cannot attack cell wall enzymes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inhibits cell wall synthesis of Gram + bacteria only |
|
|
Term
| Vancomycin's mode of action |
|
Definition
| it binds to cell wall precursors and halts peptidoglycan synthesis at step 3, possibly by interfering with the transglycosylases such that they can't polymerize peptidoglycan precursors |
|
|
Term
| a drug that can be used to treat MRSA infections |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Vancomycin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus |
|
|
Term
| VRSA can only be treated with... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Treatment to sustain physiological well-being
-Fluids, pain killers, anti-inflammatory
-Not specific for the bacteria |
|
|
Term
| the 4 basic forms of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
Mechanism 1: Alter target.
Mechanism 2: Degrade antibiotic.
Mechanism 3: Modify antibiotic.
Mechanism 4: Pump antibiotic out of cell. |
|
|
Term
| mechanism 1 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanism 2 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanism 3 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanism 4 of antibiotic resistance |
|
Definition
| Pump antibiotic out of cell. |
|
|
Term
| will an antibiotic resistance gene use more than one antibiotic resistance mechanism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 1: Alter target. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 2: Degrade antibiotic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 3: Modify antibiotic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mechanism 4: Pump antibiotic out of cell. |
|
|
Term
| how microbes alter the target |
|
Definition
-They modify the target so that it no longer binds the antibiotic.
-Mutations in ribosomal proteins confer resistance to streptomycin. |
|
|
Term
| how microbes degrade the antibiotic |
|
Definition
-They destroy the antibiotic before it gets into cell.
-The beta-lactamase enzyme specifically destroys penicillins. |
|
|
Term
| ______ confer resistance to streptomycin. |
|
Definition
| Mutations in ribosomal proteins |
|
|
Term
| The ______ enzyme specifically destroys penicillins. |
|
Definition
| beta-lactamase (or penicillinase) |
|
|
Term
| The beta-lactamase enzyme specifically destroys ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how beta-lactamase (or penicillinase) destroys penicillin |
|
Definition
| it cleaves the beta-lactam ring of penicillins and cephalosporins |
|
|
Term
| There are two types of penicillinases, based on... |
|
Definition
| where the enzyme attacks the ring. |
|
|
Term
| what both groups of penicillinases have in common |
|
Definition
| a serine hydroxyl group launches a nucleophilic attack on the ring |
|
|
Term
| how microbes modify antibiotics |
|
Definition
| They add modifying groups that inactivate antibiotic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Aminoglycoside acetyltransferase (AAC) catalyzes acetyl-CoA dependent acetylation of an amino group. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Aminoglycoside phosphotransferase (APH) catalyzes ATP-dependent phosphorylation (yellow) of a hydroxyl group. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Aminoglycoside adenylyltransferase (ANT) catalyzes ATP-dependent adenylylation (yellow) of a hydroxyl group. |
|
|
Term
| Aminoglycoside-inactivating enzymes |
|
Definition
enzymes that inactivate aminoglycoside antibiotics
-they help inactivate antibiotics |
|
|
Term
| how microbes pump the antibiotic out of the cell |
|
Definition
by using specific transporters and transport complexes
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| type of cell that uses a strategy similar to the one used to pump antibiotics out of the cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| type of pump that pumps antibiotics out of the cell and is of particular concern |
|
Definition
| multidrug resistance (MDR) efflux pumps |
|
|
Term
| multidrug resistance (MDR) efflux pumps |
|
Definition
found in Gram-negative bacteria, these efflux systems have promiscuous binding sites that can bind and pump a wide range of drugs out of the bacterial cell.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1892
-Studied Tobacco Mosaic Disease |
|
|
Term
| Studied Tobacco Mosaic Disease |
|
Definition
1892- Dmitri Ivanovsky
1898- Beijerinck |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1898
-Studied Tobacco Mosaic Disease
-Made the conceptual leap |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Tobacco Mosaic Disease |
|
Definition
| -Mottling of the leaves, stunted leaves, wrinkles.
-Observed agent was not removed by filters. |
|
|
Term
| The difference between the work of Beijerinck and that of Ivanovsky |
|
Definition
| Beijerinck postulated that the agent of tobacco mosaic virus must be very small in size. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1898
-Former students of Koch
-Studied Foot and Mouth Disease of Livestock. |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of Foot and Mouth Disease of Livestock |
|
Definition
| -High fever, blisters, weight loss.
-Agent not removed by filter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Studied Foot and Mouth Disease of Livestock. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-1911
-Studied sarcomas (tumors) in chickens. |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of sarcomas (tumors) in chickens |
|
Definition
-Cell free “filtrate” from diseased chickens could transmit tumors to healthy chickens.
-Cancer transmitted by a virus. |
|
|
Term
| Studied sarcomas (tumors) in chickens. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the original meaning of the term virus |
|
Definition
the term “virus” was used to mean “poison”
-No one could prove what was causing these illness that were not associated with bacteria. |
|
|
Term
| when viruses were first viewed |
|
Definition
| Viruses were finally viewed with the development of the electron microscope in the 1950s. |
|
|
Term
| What was thought to be the causative agent in diseases that are now known to be caused by viruses? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are there any naturally beneficial viruses? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| things most viruses cause for their host |
|
Definition
-harm
-nuisance
-some form of problems |
|
|
Term
| viruses that may be beneficial |
|
Definition
| Viruses that kill pathogens or gene therapy |
|
|
Term
| Viruses are grouped by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some shared properties viruses are grouped by |
|
Definition
-Nature of their nucleic acid (DNA or RNA).
-Symmetry of their protein shell.
-Presence or absence of a lipid membrane.
-Nucleic acid comparisons. |
|
|
Term
| GENERAL PROPERTIES OF VIRUSES |
|
Definition
| -≥1 molecule of DNA or RNA enclosed in coat of protein.
-May have additional layers.
-Cannot reproduce independent of living cells nor carry out cell division.
-Can exist extracellularly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Virion size range is ~10–400 nm in diameter.
-All virions contain a nucleocapsid which is composed of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat (capsid).
-Some have envelopes- plasma membrane components derived from their host.
-Some have spikes-proteins used for attachment to host.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-≥1 molecule of DNA or RNA enclosed in coat of protein.
-May have additional layers. |
|
|
Term
| can viruses reproduce outside of living cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can viruses carry out cell division? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can viruses exist extracellularly? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a nucleocapsid which is composed of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and a protein coat (capsid) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A protein that coats a viral genome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The protein shell that surrounds a virion’s nucleic acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| virion w/o lipid envelope |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| capsid (composed of capsomers) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plasma membrane components derived from the host |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
proteins used for attachment to host
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protect viral genetic material and aids in its transfer between host cells. |
|
|
Term
| Capsids are made of protein subunits called ______, which aggregate to form capsomers. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Capsids are made of protein subunits called protomers, which aggregate to form ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| possible shapes of capsids |
|
Definition
-helical
-icosahedral
-complex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Shaped like hollow tubes with protein walls.
-May be bent or twisted. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
helical virus
Tobacco Mosaic Virus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bent/twisted helical capsid
influenza |
|
|
Term
| some viruses that use helical capsids |
|
Definition
-tobacco mosaic virus
-influenza |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Polyhedral with 20 identical triangular faces
-Structure exhibits rotational symmetry. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
isocahedral capsid
herpes virus without envelope |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
isocahedral capsid
adenovirus |
|
|
Term
| some viruses that use isocahedral capsids |
|
Definition
-herpes simplex 1 (HSV-1)
-adenovirus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neither helical nor isocahedral |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
complex capsid
"tailed virus"
bacteriophage T4 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how bacteriophage T4 infects cell |
|
Definition
1: attachment to cell surface, facilitated by fibers
2: sheath contracts
3: core penetrates cell surface
4: phage genome is injected |
|
|
Term
| some DNA genomes that can exist in viruses |
|
Definition
-dsDNA
-ssDNA (+ / “sense”) |
|
|
Term
| some RNA genomes that can exist in viruses |
|
Definition
-ssRNA (+ / “sense”)
-ssRNA (- / “antisense”)
-dsRNA |
|
|
Term
| does the same virus always have the same genome? |
|
Definition
no
Some viruses use different genome types during different stages of their life cycle. |
|
|
Term
| the steps of VIRUS REPLICATION |
|
Definition
1. Host recognition and attachment
2. Genome entry
3. Assembly of virions
4. Exit and transmission |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viruses that only attack bacteria |
|
|
Term
| Contact and attachment of bacteriophages are mediated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Proteins that are specific to the host species |
|
|
Term
| what cell-surface receptors are normally used for |
|
Definition
| important functions for the host cell |
|
|
Term
| types of host molecules that can serve as a phage receptors |
|
Definition
-LPS components
-membrane proteins and complexes (OmpF and TolC)
-flagellar proteins
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what most bacteriophages inject into host cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens to the capsid after the bacteriophage injects its genome into a host cell? |
|
Definition
The phage capsid remains outside, attached to the cell surface.
“Ghost.” |
|
|
Term
| how phage T4 infects bacterial cell |
|
Definition
Phage T4 attaches to the cell surface by its tail fibers and then contracts to inject its DNA
[image] |
|
|
Term
| cycles of phage reproduction |
|
Definition
-Lytic cycle
-Lysogenic cycle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Bacteriophage quickly replicates, killing host cell.
this is active replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Bacteriophage is quiescent.
-Integrates into cell chromosome, as a prophage.
-Can reactivate to become lytic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A phage genome integrated into a host genome |
|
|
Term
| The “decision” between the lytic and lysogenic cycles is dictated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ trigger a lytic burst. |
|
Definition
| Events that threaten host cell survival |
|
|
Term
| Events that threaten host cell survival trigger a ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1: Attachment to a bacterial host
2: Phage injects DNA
3: Phage destroys bacterial DNA and takes over active machinery to replicate more phage
4: Phage assembles more virus
5: Phage causes bacterial lysis to release the phage
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| entry of phage DNA and degradation of host DNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesis of viral genomes and proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the bacteriophage lysogenic cycle is a type of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the virus does during the lysogenic cycle |
|
Definition
| During this cycle, the virus does not actively replicate but rather remains dormant within the bacterial cell with the capacity to reactivate and become active at a later time. |
|
|
Term
| how the lysogenic cycle progresses |
|
Definition
[image]
Left panel: Certain factors (largely unknown) cause a virus to become lysogenic (dormant). If this cycle is entered the viral DNA integrates into the bacterial chromosome.
Bottom panel: While dormant, the viral DNA, because it is integrated into the bacterial chromosome will get replicated and passed on to bacterial daughter cells during binary fission.
Right panel: As bacteria divide during binary fission the viral DNA is passed along with the bacterial DNA. This can lead to a population of bacteria carrying viral DNA.
Top panel: Occasionally in a daughter cell that is carrying the viral DNA; the virus will enter lytic phase and actively replicate to produce more virions. (lytic cycle previous slide) |
|
|
Term
| What would be the advantage of bacteriophage lysogeny (for the virus)? |
|
Definition
virus gets passed to daughter cells, since it's inside the genome
this can lead to a population of bacteria with prophage DNA inside its genome |
|
|
Term
| what BACTERIOPHAGE T4 DNA has in place of cytosine (C) |
|
Definition
| HMC (Hydroxymethylcytosine) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why BACTERIOPHAGE T4 DNA uses HMC (Hydroxymethylcytosine) instead of cytosine (C) |
|
Definition
because it protects DNA from destruction by bacterial defense mechanisms:
Restriction endonucleases |
|
|
Term
| how BACTERIOPHAGE T4 protects its DNA from destruction by bacterial restriction endonucleases |
|
Definition
| uses HMC (Hydroxymethylcytosine) instead of cytosine (C) |
|
|
Term
| why animal viruses have greater complexity and diversity of viral replication cycles |
|
Definition
| because eukaryotic cells have a more complex structure than prokaryotic cells |
|
|
Term
| how animal viruses attach to host cells |
|
Definition
-Animal viruses bind specific receptor proteins on their host cell.
-Receptors determine the viral tropism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The ability of a virus to infect a particular tissue type
affinity or preference |
|
|
Term
| can an animal virus have more than 1 tropism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-cellular tropism
-tissue tropism
-host tropism
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how animal viruses enter the cell |
|
Definition
-Endocytosis
-Membrane Fusion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Virus passes through membrane.
-Membrane lipids surround capsid to fuse envelope.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how DNA viruses in animals replicate their genome |
|
Definition
| Can utilize some or all of the host replication machinery |
|
|
Term
| how RNA viruses in animals replicate their genome |
|
Definition
| Use a viral RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase to generate RNA template |
|
|
Term
| how Retroviruses in animals replicate their genome |
|
Definition
| Use a viral reverse transcriptase to copy their genomic sequence into DNA for insertion in the host chromosome |
|
|
Term
| All animal viruses make proteins with... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where the synthesis of viral proteins and the assembly of new virions can occur |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 ways viruses can be released from a bacterial cell |
|
Definition
Lysis of cell
Exocytosis
Budding |
|
|
Term
| how the virus leaves the cell by budding |
|
Definition
-Virus passes through membrane.
-Membrane lipids surround capsid to form envelope. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how long HERPESVIRUS infections last |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| HERPESVIRUSES are distinguished from each other by... |
|
Definition
| the type of cells they exhibit latency in |
|
|
Term
| do herpesviruses produce virions during latency? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where herpesvirus DNA is during latency |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| herpesviruses are capable of reactivation to virion production if... |
|
Definition
| given the appropriate stimuli |
|
|
Term
| what stimuli cause herpesvirus reactivation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the virus remains dormant with the capacity to reactivate and make more virus at a later time |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of HERPESVIRUSES |
|
Definition
-Icosahedral
-Enveloped
-Spiked
-have a tegument (layer of proteins)
-dsDNA
-productive infections
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| herpesviruses enveloped or not? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| herpesviruses spiked or unspiked? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| nucleic acid in herpesviruses |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Herpesvirus tegument proteins |
|
Definition
| a series of special proteins that assist in virus replication |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The contents of a virion between the capsid and the envelope |
|
|
Term
| herpesvirus infections produce how many virions? |
|
Definition
| 50,000–200,000 virions produced/cell |
|
|
Term
| Host cell infected by herpesvirus may die due to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| symptoms of HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS (HSV) TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
Cold and genital sores
[image]
this is a cold sore |
|
|
Term
| Hallmark characteristic of HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS (HSV) TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
| Establish latency in neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how attachment occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Virions “surf” host cell surfaces
-Initially attach to host Heparan Sulfate
-Full attachment requires several other tissue specific receptors, such as Nectin on Epithelial Cells and Neurons
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how entry occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
| Virions enter the host through fusion or endocytosis |
|
|
Term
| how genome replication occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
| Nucleocapsid finds its way to the nucleus to replicate its DNA |
|
|
Term
| how Protein Synthesis & Assembly occur in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Proteins are synthesized with host ribosomes then shuttled back to nucleus to assemble nucleocapsid
-Nucleocapsid leaves the nucleus
-Travels to Golgi on its way out of the cell |
|
|
Term
| how Release/Exit occurs in HSV TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Mature virions get released from host via exocytosis
-Upregulate host Heparanase for their release |
|
|
Term
| HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE 1 AND 2 have have a strong tendency to stick to... |
|
Definition
| heparan sulfate on the surface of the host cells |
|
|
Term
| is a productive infection lytic or lysogenic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some signs/symptoms that can result from HERPES SIMPLEX VIRUS TYPE 1 AND 2 |
|
Definition
-Flu-like symptoms (initial infection)
-Red, fluid fill lesion(s)
-Tingling, pain at site of lesions |
|
|
Term
| when the HSV host shows no signs/symptoms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how latency in HSV types 1 and 2 occurs |
|
Definition
-Virus enters sensory neurons near site of productive infection.
-Remains in neurons for lifetime of host!
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lytic replication in epithelial cells at a mucosal surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viral capsid moves down axon via retrograde transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infection of sensory neuron in ganglia; site of latency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when the HSV host shows signs/symptoms |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how reactivation in HSV 1 and 2 occurs |
|
Definition
-Virus leaves sensory neurons
-Copy of viral DNA remains in nucleus
-Virus returns to site of initial infection (mucosal epithelium) and undergoes productive infection
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| appropriate stimulus reactivates virus from latent state in neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reactivation from latency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| viral capsid moves back down axon via anterograde transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recurrent infection at site of initial infection |
|
|
Term
| does reactivation kill the neuron? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| symptoms of HERPES SIMPLEX TYPE 2-GENITAL HERPES |
|
Definition
-Burning sensation, genital soreness, and blisters in infected area.
-May lead to inflammation of bladder/rectum. |
|
|
Term
| HIV can become latent in... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Reactivation/replication of HIV in T cells leads to... |
|
Definition
| T cell death (immune suppression) |
|
|
Term
| how HIV wrecks the immune system |
|
Definition
| Reactivation/replication of HIV in T cells leads to T cell death (immune suppression) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Flu-like symptoms
-Swollen lymph nodes
-Sores that won’t heal
-Fatigue
-Rash
-Night Sweats |
|
|
Term
| sime complications that result from HIV |
|
Definition
| it can persist and lead to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) |
|
|
Term
| Some HIV patients rapidly develop Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) within... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some HIV patients remain healthy for at least ______ post infection. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how infections begin in HIV patients |
|
Definition
| T cell count reduces and opportunistic infections begin. |
|
|
Term
| AIDS patients do or do not usually become seriously ill directly from HIV itself? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| infections that would not normally cause illness but will replicate to high numbers if they have the opportunity to |
|
|
Term
| example of something that causes an opportunistic infection |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Candida yeast infections are opportunistic infections |
|
Definition
| they would be a minor illness in a healthy person but could cause serious complications in those who are immune suppressed |
|
|
Term
| Most patients with AIDS exhibit serious illnesses because... |
|
Definition
| HIV has lowered immunity towards other microorganisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produces dsDNA from ssRNA |
|
|
Term
| what happens to the dsDNA that the HIV's reverse transcriptase produces? |
|
Definition
| it integrates into host genome |
|
|
Term
| New virions of HIV cause... |
|
Definition
| host cell lysis (T cell death) |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of HIV |
|
Definition
-(+)ssRNA
-Carries reverse transcriptase.
+Reverse transcribed into dsDNA, which integrates into host genome.
-Can remain latent/reactivate.
-New virions cause host cell lysis (T cell death). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chronically infected HIV patients have diverse HIV populations in their blood, called... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A collection of isolates (usually viruses) from a common source of infection that have evolved into many different types within one host |
|
|
Term
| ______ HIV patients have diverse HIV populations in their blood, called quasispecies |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Chronically infected HIV patients have ______ HIV populations in their blood, called quasispecies |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ virus populations hard to target with antiviral drugs. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Diverse virus populations hard to target with ______ drugs. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| frequency of HIV mutation |
|
Definition
| HIV mutates frequently such that an infected patient has diverse variants within their body at any one time. |
|
|
Term
| Certain variants of HIV ______ tissues of the genital tract. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Certain variants of HIV “seed” tissues of the ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many HIV variants can make their way to the genital tract and replicate in the genital tissue? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| “seeding” the genital tissue |
|
Definition
| going to the genital tract and replicating in the genital tissue |
|
|
Term
| the HIV variants that are seen in fluid from genital tract |
|
Definition
| the ones that "seed" the genital tract |
|
|
Term
| what variants of HIV get transmitted to others? |
|
Definition
| only the fastest replicating variants |
|
|
Term
| how fast replicating variants of HIV infect new hosts |
|
Definition
| they seed the blood of the new host |
|
|
Term
| some reasons HIV is difficult to treat |
|
Definition
-no one drug will effectively target all the diverse variants
-By the time most patients are diagnosed the virus has already produced the diverse population |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Chronically infected patients have diverse HIV populations in their blood (quasispecies). Diverse populations hard to target with antiviral drugs.
-Certain variants “seed” tissues of the genital tract.
-The same variants are seen in fluid from genital tract.
-Fast replicating variants are transmitted to others.
-Fast replicating variants seed the blood of newly infected.
-Population becomes diverse in new patient. Diverse populations are hard to target with antiviral drugs.
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| donor blood (chronic infection) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recipient blood (acute infection) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| recipient blood (chronic infection) |
|
|
Term
| is HIV vaccine available? |
|
Definition
| no, but active research is ongoing |
|
|
Term
| the ideal HIV vaccine would... |
|
Definition
| stimulate the production of specific antibodies which would bind to HIV preventing it from entering host cells |
|
|
Term
| Problems with development of HIV vaccine |
|
Definition
| Virions continually change their properties (variants) |
|
|
Term
| HIV virions continually change their... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of a virus that doesn't exhibit latency |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of virus that exhibits seasonality |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| during certain seasonal time periods, the virus will be most active |
|
|
Term
| Influenza peaks during... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 hypotheses as to why Influenza peaks during winter |
|
Definition
1: In the United States, winter months mean generally, more time is spent indoors in closer contact with others. The likelihood of picking up respiratory infection (droplets) from another increases. This is true of most respiratory microorganisms; not only Influenza.
2: The stability of an influenza virion decreases as the humidity in the air increases. That is, the virus remains more stable in dry air than it does in humid air. Meaning, dry air is more common during the winter; thus the virus will be more stable during those months. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| it spreads via aerosols-short incubation |
|
|
Term
| some symptoms of influenza |
|
Definition
-Muscle aches / fatigue
-Chills
-Fever
-Sore throat |
|
|
Term
| some complications that can result from influenza |
|
Definition
| Bacterial secondary infections of the lungs, sinus, and ear |
|
|
Term
| secondary infections that can result from influenza |
|
Definition
| Bacterial secondary infections of the lungs, sinus, and ear |
|
|
Term
| the nucleic acid in influenza |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms affected by influenza A |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms affected by influenza B |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organisms affected by influenza C |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| influenza virion, showing that it has its genome in multiple segments |
|
|
Term
| the spike proteins on an influenza virus |
|
Definition
-hemagglutinin (HA)
-neuraminidase (NA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Important for attachment to respiratory epithelium. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Important for hydrolysis of epithelial mucus, allowing better adherence to cells, and release of virions. |
|
|
Term
| Subtypes of influenza virus are named on the basis of... |
|
Definition
their hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) variants
Ex. H5N1 Bird Flu |
|
|
Term
| effect of rapid influenza mutation |
|
Definition
| mutates frequently during replication leading to rapid Influenza variants emerging in a population (flu season) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Each strand of influenza virus genome encodes... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A cell infected with two different strains of influenza virus can... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what could happen when one cell is infected by two strains of Influenza virus? |
|
Definition
| one strain of the virus could accidentally pick up some strands of genome from the other strain of the virus as they are both using the same machinery to replicate |
|
|
Term
| how a novel strain of the influenza virus can emerge |
|
Definition
| one strain of the virus accidentally picking up some strands of genome from the other strain of the virus in the same cell during replication |
|
|
Term
| difference between reassorting and mutating |
|
Definition
| mutating has only one strain involved while reassorting involves two or more strains picking up characteristics from each other |
|
|
Term
| how the 2009 swine flu outbreak is believed to have begun |
|
Definition
[image]
In 2009 there was a swine flu outbreak that was believed to have resulted from a “reassortment” event. The leading theory is that an Avian Influenza strain and a Human Influenza strain both infected a population of pigs at the same time. In the pig host the virus reassorted into a novel strain of Influenza that had traits of both strains. This novel “swine” strain carried properties much different than most human strains of the flu that its infectivity was greatly increased. |
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the ______ meet in February to review data and recommend the upcoming strains to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
| World Health Organization and collaborators |
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the World Health Organization and collaborators meet in ______ to review data and recommend the upcoming strains to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the World Health Organization and collaborators meet in February to ______ and recommend the upcoming strains to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In the Northern Hemisphere, the World Health Organization and collaborators meet in February to review data and recommend ______ to be included in that seasons vaccine. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The ______ makes the final decision for influenza vaccines for the United States. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how many strains are included in the influenza vaccine during a given year? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how inactivated influenza vaccine is done |
|
Definition
| Administered via needle (shot). |
|
|
Term
| does inactivated influenza virus replicate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how live/attenuated influenza vaccine is done |
|
Definition
| Administered via intranasal mist. |
|
|
Term
| does Live/Attenuated influenza virus replicate? |
|
Definition
| it replicates some, but not enough to give you the flu |
|
|
Term
| when Live/Attenuated influenza vaccine was reintroduced |
|
Definition
| During the 2019 flu season |
|
|
Term
| is there any differenc in effectiveness between inactivated and live/attenuated influenza vaccine? |
|
Definition
| During 2020 flu season data indicated no difference in effectiveness (meaning it had similar effectiveness as inactivated).
At the time of this statement: flu season 2020 just ended so retrospective analysis may change findings. |
|
|
Term
| symptoms of HERPES SIMPLEX TYPE 1 |
|
Definition
-Blister at lips, mouth, and gums. (cold sores)
-Can gain access to eye. |
|
|
Term
| how HSV 1 remains in the body |
|
Definition
-Lifetime latency
-periodic reactivation in times of stress. |
|
|
Term
| when HSV 1 is reactivated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is there a cure for HSV 1? |
|
Definition
| no, but there is treatment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Antiviral
-acts as nucleotides, incorporated into viral DNA, stops polymerization |
|
|
Term
| how Acyclovir is antiviral |
|
Definition
acts as nucleotides, incorporated into viral DNA, stops polymerization
basically stops virus DNA polymerization |
|
|
Term
| Herpes outbreaks will typically resolve... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an OVER-THE-COUNTER TREATMENT FOR COLD SORES |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -OVER-THE-COUNTER TREATMENT FOR COLD SORES
-Contains Docosanol (fatty acid)- “Changes the host cell membrane which surrounds healthy cells so that virus can't enter cells.”
-It is not an antiviral, in order to be effective must be applied at earliest signs of outbreak (tingling). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fatty acid that “Changes the host cell membrane which surrounds healthy cells so that virus can’t enter cells.” |
|
|
Term
| how Docosanol treats cold sores |
|
Definition
| the Docosanol (fatty acid) in it “Changes the host cell membrane which surrounds healthy cells so that virus can’t enter cells.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| for Docosanol to be affective, it must be... |
|
Definition
| applied at earliest signs of outbreak (tingling). |
|
|
Term
| the earliest signs of a HSV 1 outbreak |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| If a patient waits too long before applying treatment (Docosanol),... |
|
Definition
| the virus will have already infected enough cells to cause a full outbreak, but it may lessen the duration of outbreak. |
|
|
Term
| Docosanol is only approved for ______ outbreaks of HSV 1 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why are there so few antiviral agents available? |
|
Definition
-Applying the principle of selective toxicity is much harder for viruses than it is for bacteria.
-Few targets are unique.
-since all viruses replicate inside a host cell and use host cell machinery, targeting that machinery would mean targeting the host (high likelihood of side effects) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| all viruses replicate inside a host cell and use host cell machinery |
|
|
Term
| why antivirals run the risk of side effects |
|
Definition
| because all viruses replicate inside a host cell and use host cell machinery, which means targeting that machinery would mean targeting the host |
|
|
Term
| neuraminidase (NA) is needed by influenza to... |
|
Definition
| escape from the host cell |
|
|
Term
| how neuraminidase (NA) helps influenza escape from the host cell |
|
Definition
it cleaves sialic acid groups from host glycoproteins
[image] |
|
|
Term
| ______ binds to NEURAMINIDASE (NA) so that it can’t cleave host attachment. |
|
Definition
| Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) |
|
|
Term
| Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) binds to ______ so that it can’t cleave host attachment. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) binds to NEURAMINIDASE (NA) so that it can’t ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) prevents Influenza from leaving the host cell to find new cellular targets |
|
Definition
it binds to NEURAMINIDASE (NA) so that it can’t cleave host attachment
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Tamiflu is most effective if taken... |
|
Definition
| within 2 days of symptom onset |
|
|
Term
| what type of inhibitor is Tamiflu? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is Tamiflu is most effective if taken within 2 days of symptom onset? |
|
Definition
| after 2 days, it's more likely that the virus has already released high numbers of itself |
|
|
Term
| some Inhibitors of influenza proteins |
|
Definition
-Amantadine
-Zanamivir
-Oseltimivir (ie. Tamiflu) |
|
|
Term
| how Amantadine interferes with influenza |
|
Definition
| it inhibits the M2 protein |
|
|
Term
| how Zanamivir inhibits influenza |
|
Definition
| it inhibits neuraminidase |
|
|
Term
| some drugs that inhibit HIV |
|
Definition
-AZT
-Indinavir
-Enfuvirtide |
|
|
Term
| how AZT interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
-Reverse Transcription Inhibitor)
-Prevents HIV reverse transcription |
|
|
Term
| how Indinavir interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
-Protease Inhibitor
-Prevents HIV protein cleavage |
|
|
Term
| how Enfuvirtide interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
-Fusion Inhibitor
-Prevents entry of HIV into cells |
|
|
Term
| why HIV must be targeted with a multi-drug cocktail |
|
Definition
| because the diverse HIV variants within a host’s body are hard to target with one drug |
|
|
Term
| how HIV protease interferes with HIV |
|
Definition
it cleaves a single Gag polyprotein into multiple, smaller proteins
[image]
The protease enzyme is shown here as a ribbon structure, while the protease inhibitor BEA 369 is shown as a stick model |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ssRNA that can go straight to the translation process, as if it's mRNA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ssRNA that acts as a template for synthesis of mRNA that goes to the translation process |
|
|
Term
| difference between (+/sense) ssRNA and (-/antisense) ssRNA |
|
Definition
| (+/sense) ssRNA goes straight from virus to translation process while (-/antisense) ssRNA functions as a template for synthesis of mRNA that goes to the translation process |
|
|
