Term
|
Definition
sex-determining region Y
master switch for differentiation to occur in male direction
mutations can give rise to XY females and translocations can give rise to XX males |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
fetal precursors to oviduct, uterus and upper vagina
proliferates in utero under absence of hormones early on
AMH induces involution during gestation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
fetal precursor to epididymis and vas deferends
testerone induces proliferation during gestation
absence of hormones induces involution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bipotential stage of external reproductive genitalia
differentiates at 18 or 19 wks |
|
|
Term
Swyer syndrome
(gonadal Dysgenesis) |
|
Definition
type of hypogonadism, pure gonadal digenesis
appear externally female but have no functional gonads
puberty is not normally induced
streak gonads are prone to tumor growth, usually removed entirely
Karyotype: 46,XY
Tx: estrogen and progesterone |
|
|
Term
| Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) |
|
Definition
mutation of androgen receptor gene (disrupts normal response)
Complete and Partial forms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Karyotye: 46,XY
normal female external genitalia
No Wolffian or Mullerian ducts development
Normal female breast development along with sparse pubic and axillary hair at puberty |
|
|
Term
| Mullerian inhibiting substance |
|
Definition
secreted by testes
prevents development of Mullerian ducts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Karyotype: 46,XY
Gonads differentiated into normal testes, secrete appropriate amts of testosterone and pt responds to it
However cannot make DHT from testosterone
Functioning testes, normal Wolffian duct development, no Mullerian ducts, a small penis and scrotum that resembles labia majora |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Karyotype: 46,XY
Born with ambiguous external genitalia due to partial ability to respond
Partially fused labia/scrotum and testes may be undescended
Perineal hypospadias often present
Wolffian duct minimal or no develop
Mullerian not properly developed
Normal female breast development and small amounts of pubic/axillary hair at pubertyQ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Karyotype: 47,XXY males
Usually, probably a maternal meiosis defect
One of most common chromosome disorders
Inhibit testis develop (unusually small), reduced fertility, physical and behavioral problems
Wide hips, breast dev signs, small testes, arms and legs are wider in proportion to shoulders, relatively little body hair
Pretty normal after reach adulthood (except low fertility) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Karyotype: 45,XO female
Infant: swollen hands/feet, wide/webbed neck
Adult: short, low hairline, shield-shaped thorax, shortened MCIV, drooping eyelids, dry eyes, poor breast dev, rudimentary ovaries/streaks, no menstruation, infertility
Dx: amniocentesis in utero; heart problems/wide neck/swelling at birth; slow growth rate in childhood
Tx: GH for growth, estrogen for puberty, estrogen and progesterone for menstruation, surgery for heart defects, statins for high BP; donor egg for pregnancy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Gonadal development is unusual or asymmetrical
Unassigned or ambiguous gender at birth
Characterized by unilateral testis with one testis often intra-abdominal
Karyotypes: 45,XO or 46,XY
Second most common cause of ambiguous genitalia
Assignment of sex after dx
Can be inherited, mostly unknown etiology |
|
|
Term
| Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |
|
Definition
Deficient in CYP11A, 3B-HD, CYP17, or 21-hydroylase
testosterone biosynthetic defect disease
Karyotye: 46, XX
Excess androgens are produced as a result of cortisol biosynthetic defect
Leads to ambiguous external genitalia (enlarged clitoris and fused labia)
Tx: cortisol daily, with additional during stress |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"pulse generator" in hypothalamus, creates pattern of GnRH release (every 70-90min)
has auto-rythmicity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
increase GnRH release at puberty
increase LH and FSH production
prevents metastasis (tumor suppressor molecule) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receptor for kisspeptin
activates PIP2->IP3+DAG
IP3->Ca2+->depolarized hypothalamic neurons->release GnRH
DAG->TRPC and K+ channels -> depolarize membrane |
|
|
Term
| 1* sexual characteristics |
|
Definition
| formation of testes/ovaries and external genitalia, develop during embryogenesis |
|
|
Term
| 2* sexual characteristics |
|
Definition
induced by products of formed/functioning 1* characteristics
Ex: facial hair, lengthening of penis, growth of breasts, pubic and underarm hair
Due to higher levels of androgens and estrogens at puberty |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Onset of adrenal androgen production
Precedes other signs of puberty by 2-3yrs
Marked by rise in adrenal androgens independent of gonadal steroid production |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| onset of breast bud development, an estrogen induced effect; average at 11y/o |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| onset of pubic hair growth under influence of estrogen and testosterone, age 11 in females and 12 in males |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| onset of menstrual flow; average at 13y/o |
|
|
Term
| androgen effects (at puberty) |
|
Definition
| cause body hair, body odor, and acne in boys and girls |
|
|
Term
| estrogens+androgens effects (at puberty) |
|
Definition
| cause growth acceleration, skeletal maturation, changes in external genitalia |
|
|
Term
| "Normal" Female Puberty Timeline |
|
Definition
Onset: 8-13y/o, avg. 10
First Sign: breast bud (70%) or pubic hair, other follows w/in 6mo
Peak Growth: 1.3 years before menarche, gain avg 9in
Menarche: 2.-2.5yr after onset |
|
|
Term
| "Normal" Male Puberty Timeline |
|
Definition
Onset: 9-14y/o, avg.12
First sign: testicular enlargement, measured by volume
Peak Growth: 2 years after girls, gain avg. 11in |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
secondary sexual development occurring early
in girls: before 7.5(black/Hispanic) or 8(white
in boys: before 9 |
|
|
Term
| True/Central Precocious Puberty |
|
Definition
mediated via abnormalities in the HPG axis and leads to maturation of gonads
majority of cases of PP
gradual 2* development, growth but early
more common in girls
Causes: early sex hormone release from pituitary, abnormality in pit or hypo
DX: measuring blood hormone levels, X-ray for bone maturity, ultrasound of pelvis and adrenal glands, CT/MRI of brain |
|
|
Term
| GPR54 Activation Mutation |
|
Definition
frequent cause of True PP
mutation in receptor causes constitutive activation of receptor without kisspeptin binding
triggers early puberty
increase ERK phosphorylation and reduces desensitization of GPR54 activation -> more frequent and longer activation |
|
|
Term
| Peripheral Precocious Puberty |
|
Definition
source of sex steroids from other than the "central" pathway (i.e. adrenal tumor or environmental source) and does not cause gonadal maturation
Dx: measure blood hormones, x-ray for bone maturity, ultrasound of pelvis and adrenals, CT/MRI of brain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
form of peripheral PP
caused by activating mutation in G-protein signaling
results in elevated cAMP levels in endocrine tissue
classic triad: PP, café-au-lait spots, fibrous bone dysplsia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
failure of pubertal onset by age 13 in girls or age 14 in boys
or failure of pubertal progression (<1 Tanner stage/year) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| signaled by contact with egg, causes release of enzymes to digest egg membrane and for chromosomes to enter egg |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
male germ cell, diploid
present since first few weeks after conception
undergo division to become spermatogonia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
diploid, male stem cell
close to BM of Sertoli cells
responsible for beginning waves of sperm production
each gives rise to 64 spermatids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
male germ cell, 2N to 4N to 2N
in adulumincal compartment of Sertoli cells
go through meiosis I to become 2* |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
male germ cell, diploid
rare, but in adluminal compartment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| round haploid male germ cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
haploid, elongated male germ cell
thickened mid-piece, DNA condensing, acrosome formation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
mature sperm cell (male germ cell)
head and tail (beats via myosin motor proteins moving MTs wrt each other) |
|
|
Term
| FSH effects on Sertoli cells |
|
Definition
increase androgen-binding protein
increase inhibin/activin production
increase aromatase production (for estrogen production)
increase plasminogen activator expression (increase sperm detach)
increase spermatogonia proliferation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
enzyme in Leydig cells that forms pregnenolone
catalyzes rate limgint step of testosterone synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
product of CYPIIAI action on cholesterol
intermediate of testosterone synthesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
very important enzyme in testosterone production
involved in every pathway to testosterone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| seminiferous tubules -> epididymis -> vas deferens -> penile urethra |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
formed by sperm and secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbourethral glands
10% V = sperm
75% V = seminal vesicle fluid
key: fructose, ascorbic acid, prostaglandins, fibrinolysins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
formed from testosterone by 5-a-reductase (usually at target tissues)
2-3x more potent
critical for male sexual (external esp.) differentiation
binds to ABP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
acromatized from testosterone in many tissues
can approach follicular-level
abnormal test:estra ratio -> gynecomastia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
problem in testicles causes inadequate levels of testosterone
Causes: Klinefelter, Undescended testes, Mumps orchitis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
form of 1* male hypogonadism
testicle develop in abdomen
often corrects itself in first few years w/o tx
if not corrected in early childhood, may lead to malfunction of testicles that reduces production of testosterone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
form of 1* male hypogonadism
mumps infection that involves testicles during adolescence or adulthood
can result in long term testicular damage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
indicates problem in hypothalamus or pituitary gland that prevents signaling testes to produce testosterone
Ex: hypogonadotropic hypogonaism, hypothalamic hypogonadism |
|
|
Term
| Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism |
|
Definition
form of 2* male hypogonadism
due to problems with hypo or ant. pit.
Px: delayed puberty, infertility, sexual dysfunction, also see in girls |
|
|
Term
Hypothalamic hypogonadism
(Kallmann syndrome) |
|
Definition
GnRH receptor mutation or GPR54 mutation
Px: decreased sense of smell
Cause: most unknown
Tx: human chorionic gonadotropin or testosterone
Females: estrogen and progesterones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
mutation in LHCGR - GPCR in Leydig cells
results in excessive testosterone production
appearance of 2* male characteristics by 2-3y/o
Px: aggressiveness, tall for age (eventually reduced stature though)
Dx: genetic testing
Tx: drugs to inhibit gonadal steroidogenesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1* oocyte, single layer of flat follicular cells surrounding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
larger oocyte and cuboidal granulosa cells surrounding
formation of ZP |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| multiple layers of granulosa cells, formation of theca cell layer, formation of antrum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
pre-ovulatory follicles, contains corona radiate and cumulus oophorus
oocyte begins meiosis II and stops at metaphase II until sperm penetration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
progesterone
estradiol
inhibin A |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
diploid female germ cell
formed by third trimester gestation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
diploid female germ cell
begins meiosis in gestation
arrested in prophase I for up to 50 years |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
haploid female germ cell
enters meiosis II around time of ovulation
arrested in metaphase II until fertilization |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
induced by FSH rising during follicular phase, occurs around ovulation
increased number of cumulus oophorus granulosa cells |
|
|
Term
| FSH effect on granulosa cells |
|
Definition
increased expression of FSH receptors
induces proliferation
estrogen production by CYP19 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
aromatase in granulosa cells
converts androgens to estrogens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
enzyme in theca cells
produces androgens (mostly androstenedione) to be converted into estrogens by granulosa cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
one of first to increase (during first 1/2 of cycle)
stimulates prolif of granulosa cells
preps uterine lining for implantation
maintain healthy skeleton and keep bone strong |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| slowly rises into ovulation phase and peaks, slowly falls after ovulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
relatively low and stable throughout most of cycle
sharp rise and fall around ovulation |
|
|
Term
| progesterone in female cycle |
|
Definition
very low for most of cycle
large increase from corpus luteum in later half of cycle (after egg leaves ovary)
high lasts for a while
serves to expand uterine lining and establish healthy blood supply
help to make nice for implantation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
menstruation has never occured
many potential causes at different levels of HPO axis
in presence of normal growth, considered a normal variant until 16y/o |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cessation of menses for >6mo
ex: pregnancy, polycystic ovary syndrome, hyperprolactinemia |
|
|
Term
| Polycystic ovary syndrome |
|
Definition
type of 2* amenorrhea
most common repro abnormality
ovaries are enlarged w/ numerous small cysts along outer edge
menstrual abnormalities common
excess hair growth, acne or obesity
cause is unkown
Early Dx and Tx may reduce risk of long-term complications (DM2 or heart disease) |
|
|
Term
| Pelvic inflammatory disease |
|
Definition
infection of uterus, fallopian tubes, and other repro organs
Px: lower abdominal pain, serious complication of some STDs
Can damage tubes and tissues infected
Cause ectopic pregnancy, abscesses, and chronic pelvic pain
10-15% cause infertility |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
sperm maturation w/in female repro tract
irreversible
increases motility, loss of surface proteins and lipids, merging of acrosomal and PM
induced by signals from female repro tract |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
glycoprotein in zona pellucida that stimulates the acrosome reaction
restricts species specificity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
after engulfment of sperm into oocyte
release of cortical granules into ZP
prevents polyspermy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
20-30 cell stage of embryo
time of attachment to uterine wall
consists of trophoblast and inner embryoblast portions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tissue of blastocyst that gives rise to embryonic part of placenta |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tissue of blastocyst that gives rise to fetus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
endometrium transforms into at implantation
requires progesterone from corpus luteum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
inner layer of trophoblast, but ouside embryoblast
stem cells, important for implantation of egg into uterus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
outer layer of trophoblast
multi-nucleated cells with finger-like projections into decidua
establishes rich vasculature in early placenta
formed by fusion of cytotrophoblast cells |
|
|
Term
| progesterone role in pregnancy |
|
Definition
maintain uterine lining
inhibit uterine contractions
inhibit prostaglandin formation
inhibit T cell immune response to foreign Ags of fetus |
|
|
Term
| estrogen role in pregnancy |
|
Definition
maintain uterine lining
stimulates mammary glands
helps inhibit uterine contractions
increases uterine size and blood flow
involved in implantation
induces fetal organ development
increases breast and adipose tissue |
|
|
Term
| human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) role in pregnancy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| human placental lactogen role in pregnancy |
|
Definition
stimulates mammary glands
provides energy to fetus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| relaxin role in pregnancy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| coticotopin releasing hormone (CRH) role in pregnancy |
|
Definition
increases HR, BP and glucose
stimulates partruition |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stimulates let-down of milk
stimulates myoepithelial contraction
promotes uterine contractions
promotes nuturing behavior
calming effect
role in orgasm and long-term mating
high levels -> trusting behavior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stimulates synthesis of lactose, increasing milk yield
increases gene expression of milk proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
initial fluid produced in first few days after birth
rich in lymphocytes and antibodies, high in protein |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Dx: high blood pressure and protein in urine after 20th wk of pregnancy
Px: headache, swelling feet/hands/face
Vasculature component of placenta damaged, can result in abruption (separation from endometrium)
Restricts growth of fetus and hurts maternal organs
Resolves within 6wks post-partum
(more common in 1st pregnancies) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Tonic, clonic convulsions in pregnancy woman in absence of other neurological or metabolic cuases
Life-threatening, emergency, only 5% of pre-E progresses to this
Antenatal, intrapartum, post-partum (24-48hrs)
Tx: magnesium sulfphate and delivery of fetus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Life-threatening, type of severe pre-eclampsia
Px: hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets
Most before 35wks pregnancy
W/o warning: headache, vision problems, upper body (neck, shoulder) pain, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, seizure
Requires emergency medical treatment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Endometrial cells proliferate outside of uterine cavity (most commonly in ovaries)
Cell still under hormonal control, but respond differently
Px: abdominal pain, worsen with menstrual cycle
Usually during repro age (5-10% of all women)
Common cause of infertility |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found in the bottom of the small intestine crypts of Lieberkahn
secrete alpha-defensins in response to bacteria |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
"mini-brain" of GI, has sensory, inter- and motor neurons
Uses ACh, peptides and bioactive amines as NTs
Major groups: Meissner's and Auerbach's |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
group of neurons in ENS
found between submucosa and muscularis externa |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
group of neurons in ENS
found between outer longitudinal and inner circular muscle layers of the muscularis externa |
|
|
Term
| Parasympathetic supply to GI |
|
Definition
Vagus and pelvic nerves
Synapse at gut wall, releasing ACh, 2* messenger is Ca2+
Causes contraction
Thus: increases secretion and motility
but decreases Vascular SM contract and sphincter tone
(ACh -> endothelial -> NO -> vascular dilation) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
From sympathetic chain
Synapse at gut wall, releasing NE
Inhibits secretion and motility (causes relax), increases contraction of vascular SM and sphincter tone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contraction or relaxation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on GI tract |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
CCK
(source, target, effect, pathway) |
|
Definition
Source: I cells in duod & jej and neurons
Target: pancreas, gallbladder
Effect: increase pancreatic enzyme secretion, trophic factor for pancreas, contraction of gallbladder, inhibits gastric emptying
Pathway: Ca2+ is 2* messenger |
|
|
Term
GIP
(source, target, effect) |
|
Definition
Source: K cells in duod & jej
Target: pancreas, stomach
Effect: increase insulin secretion, decrease gastric emptying & secretion (if high enough dose) |
|
|
Term
Gastrin
(source, target, effect, control) |
|
Definition
Source: G cells from stomach
Target: parietal cells
Effect: inc. acid secretion and mucosal growth
Control: stimulated by protein digestion products; inhibited by somatostatin |
|
|
Term
GRP
(source, target, effect) |
|
Definition
Source: vagal nerves
Target: G cells in stomach
Effect: cause gastrin release |
|
|
Term
Secretin
(source, target, effect, pathway) |
|
Definition
Source: S cells in SI
Target: pancreas, stomach
Effect: inc. bicarb/fluid pancreatic secretion (ductal cells, CFTR), trophic factor for pancreas; dec. gastrin secretion and its trophic effects, dec. gastric emptying
Pathway: cAMP is 2* messenger |
|
|
Term
VIP
(source, target, effect, pathway) |
|
Definition
Source: ENS neurons
Target: SI, pancreas
Effect: SMC relax and increase secretion; increase pancreatic secretion
Pathway: cAMP is 2* messenger |
|
|
Term
Somatostatin
(source, target, effect) |
|
Definition
Source: D cells in stom & duod
Target: stomach, intestine, pancreas, liver
Effect: dec. gastrin release; dec. absorption; dec. pancreatic secretion; dec. bile flow |
|
|
Term
Motilin
(source, target, effect) |
|
Definition
Source: endocrine cells in upper GI
Target: esoph sphincter, stomach
Effect: increase SM contraction in both |
|
|
Term
Ghrelin
(source, target, effect) |
|
Definition
Source: fundus
Target: hypothalamus, pituitary
Effect: inc. hunger and gastric emptying (via hypo), increase GH (via pituitary) |
|
|
Term
peristalsis
(how, where, function) |
|
Definition
Distention->afferent ENS -> 2 synapse interneuron-> 2 motor neurons-> contraction proximal to bolus and relax distal to bolus
Seen in esophagus, distal stomach, SI and LI
Function is propulsion of bolus |
|
|
Term
rhythmic segmentation
(how, where, function) |
|
Definition
generated by oscillating membrane voltage of ICCs connected by gap junctions; stimuli help to reach threshold
Seen in small and large intestine
Function in mixing |
|
|
Term
| Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) |
|
Definition
pacemaker cells of GI
connected by gap junctions and with smooth muscles
causes coordinated units of contraction to yield rhythmic segmentation |
|
|
Term
tonic contraction
(how, where, function) |
|
Definition
how: contraction until otherwise signaled
Seen in sphincters and proximal stomach
Functions in compartmentalization, blocking passage3s, maintaining pressure on contetns |
|
|
Term
| Migrating motor complex (MMC) |
|
Definition
distinct pattern of activity in GI smooth muscles between meals
"housekeeping" role
correlates with increased motilin levels associated with fasting
4 phases, cycle every 1.5-2hrs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Quiescence: 45-60min
rare contractions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Progressive contract: ~30min
Perstaltic contractions that progressively increase in freq.
Start in stomach and propagates through SI |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Steady contract: 5-15min
Evenly spaced, freq. peristaltic contractions
Pyloris is open, allowing indigestible material to pass into SI |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Transition: short time
helps to move from vast contractions in Phase 3 and inactivity of Phase 1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
increases motility
agonist of motilin receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
from serous acinar cells in salivary glands
contain precursors of digestive enzymes packed into granules
helps to concentrate zymogens and prevent premature activation |
|
|
Term
| duct epithelial cells of salivary glands |
|
Definition
low flow -> absorb Na+ and Cl-, hypotonic saliva results
high flow -> less absorb, more isotonic
Secrete K+ and HCO3- when parasympathetic stimulated |
|
|
Term
Saliva
(sources/contribution) |
|
Definition
Parotid - 25%, serous, amylase, glycoproteins
Submandibular - 70%, serous/mucin
Sublingual - 5%, serous/mucin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found in saliva, from parotid gland
functions in carbohydrate digestion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found in saliva
protects epithelial cells, aids in enamel formation and Ca2+ binding |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found in saliva
aids in vitamin B12 absorption |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found in saliva
functions in lubrication |
|
|
Term
| antimicrobial molecules in saliva |
|
Definition
lactoperoxidase
lactoferrin
lysozyme
IgA receptor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
move food to back of mouth
triggers swallowing reflex |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Center in the medulla
Triggered by deglutition
Closes off soft palate (block nasopharynx access)
Sequential contractions move food down
Laryngeal muscles contract (move epiglottis, close off airway)
Peristalsis cares down
Lower sphincter opens to move bolus into stomach |
|
|
Term
| superficial epithelial cells |
|
Definition
cell of the stomach
produces mucus and HCO3- |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cell of the stomach
produces mucus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cell of the stomach, found in body of stomach only
produces HCl and intrinsice factor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cell of stomach, found only in body and antrum
produces pepsinogen or chymosin in infants |
|
|
Term
| gastric enteroendocrine cell |
|
Definition
cell of stomach
produces gastrin
produces somatostatin in antrum
produces histamine in body |
|
|
Term
| Stimulation of Stomach motility |
|
Definition
Distension of stomach
Gastrin release (induced by protein digestion products) |
|
|
Term
| Inhibition of Stomach motility |
|
Definition
Neural: ENS (short reflex) and CNS (long reflex)
Triggers: acid, fat digestion products, hyperosmotic solution and distention in duodenum act on receptors
Hormonal: secretin, GIP, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pH of blood increases near stomach due to HCO3- absorption to aid in H+ secretion into stomach lumen |
|
|
Term
| Gastric acid secretion control |
|
Definition
Stimulators: vagal ACh (D&I), gastrin (D&I), histamine (D only)
Inhibitors: secretin (I), GIP (D), somamatostatin (I) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Trigger: sight, thought, smell of food
Delivery: vagal nerve (ACh and GRP)
Effectors: GRP -> G cells releases gastrin
Gastrin and ACh stimulate parietal cell (direct H+) and histamine release (indirect H+)
ACh, gastrin and histamine increase pepsinogen secretion from chief cell
ACh inhibits somatostatin release from D cell |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Trigger: stretch and protein digestion products
Effectors: Antral G cell, ECL cell, D cell
distention->ENS & vagus->ACh and GRP -> increase gastricn, increase histamine, increase H+
Peptides/AA-> antral increase gastrin -> increase acid
Low pH in antrum -> D cell release somatostatin -> less gastrin -> less acid |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Trigger: protein digestion, fat digestion products and acid in duod
Effectors: secretin and GIP
inhibitiounm of gastric and acid release |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
zymogen produced by chief cells
activated and optimal function requires low pH
aids in protein digestion
stimulated release by secretin, VIP, ACh, CCK, gastrin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
produced by parietal cells
required for vitamin B12 absorption
deficiency -> pernicious anemia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
produced by chief cells
starts the digestion of TGs |
|
|
Term
| Gastric diffusion barrier |
|
Definition
protects mucosa from acidic environment
consists of: apical membrane, tight junctions between cells, mucous layer, HCO3- microenvironment, somatostatin release at low pH, and frequent replacement of epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
| Pancreatic acinar secretions |
|
Definition
| Zymogen release, Na-Cl rich fluid |
|
|
Term
| Pancreatic ductal secretions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Luminal - by salivary and pancreatic amylases; break a1,4 linkages; make mono- di- or oligosaccharides
Membrane - oligosaccharidases; on brush border; oligosacch to monosaccharides |
|
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Term
|
Definition
Form: monosaccharides
Apical Transport: SGLT1 (glucose/galactose cotrans w/Na+), GLUT5 (fructose, facilitated diffusion)
BL Transport: GLUT2 (glucose, fructose, galactose) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
oligosaccharidase on brush border
lactose --> glucose + galactose |
|
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Term
|
Definition
oligosaccharidase on brush border
maltose or maltrotriose -> 2 or 3 glucoses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
oligosaccharidase pair on brush border
a-limit dextrins -> glucose + sucrose -> 2glucose + fructose |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Luminal Enzymes: pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, carboxypeptidases
Brush border peptidases as well
Intracellular: tripeptidases, dipeptidases, etc. to yield aa |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
secreted as trypsinogen
activated by enterokinase
luminal peptidase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
found on luminal membrane of epithelial cells in SI
activates trypsin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
luminal peptidase
secreted as chymotrypsinogen
activated by trypsin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
luminal peptidase
secreted as proelastase
activated by trypsin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
luminal peptidase
secreted as procarboxypeptidase
activated by trypsin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Form: amino acid, small peptides
Apical Trans: 7 different aa (5 Na+ gradient driven), PepT1 (oligopep/H+ cotrans, H+ gradient driven), 2aa/Na+ cotrans (Na+ gradient driven)
BL trans: (only aa) 3+ distinct transporters (Na-independent), small peptides move too |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| active transport in ileum |
|
|
Term
| Vitamin B1 (thiamine) absorption |
|
Definition
active-carrier-mediated or passive
depends on luminal concentration |
|
|
Term
| Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) absorption |
|
Definition
| active transport in proximal SI |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Form: pterolmonoglutamate
Apical Trans: exchanger for OH-
Deficiency -> megaloblastic anemia, also caused by methotrexate and VitB12 deficiency |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Ingest: pterolpolyglutamate
Brush border peptidases cleave off extra glutamate residues to form pterolmonoglutamate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Method: active transport
Req: R protein, intrinsic factor, TCI/TCII/orTCIII
Stomach: protein-B12 to R-B12
Duodenum: R-B12 to IF-B12
Enterocyte receptor binds IF-B12
Enterocyte: IF-B12 to TCI-B12
portal system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
derived from stem cell in intestines, migration onto villi -> differentiation into mature absorptive form
sloughed off from villus tip
stem to slough = 48-96hrs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
200m^2 area
6m long, folds, villi, cryptrs/glands, and microvilli
Nutrietn absorption, Na+ absorption, K+ secretion
Net absorb: water, Cl, Na and K+
Net secrete: HCO3- |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
25m^2
2.4m long, folds, crypts/glands, microvilli
Na+ absorption, K+ secretion
Net absorb: water, Na+, Cl
Net secrete: K+ and HCO3- |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Coupled: electrogenic, coupled to other nutrients, cAMP and Ca2+ independent, jejunal villi
Electroneutral: parallel Na/H and Cl/HCO3 exchangers, regulated by cAMP and Ca2+, between meals, effected by cholera toxin, ileum and proximal colon
Electrogenic: distal colon, ENaC, sensitive to amiloride and ALD control
Triggers: ALD in distal colon, AngII in small intestine |
|
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Term
|
Definition
sodium-acid exchangers
involved in electroneutral Na+ absorption between meals
move Na+ from lumen into cell and H+ from cell into lumen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Cl/HCO3 exchanger
involved in electroneutral Na+ absorption between meals
moves Cl from lumen into cell, moves HCO3 from cell into lumen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
K+/Cl- cotransporter
involved in electroneutral Na+ absorption
moves K+ and Cl- from cell to interstium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fluid movement carries small water soluble solutes paracellularly |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Electroneutral: with Na+ electroneutral |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Electrogenic: crypts, CFTR on apical membrane, NKCC1/Na-Kpump/Kchannel on BL membrane (Na+ follows)
Triggers: bacterial toxins, hormones, ACh, immune cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
passive, paracellular
solvent drag
Active (MAYBE) in distal colon: H+/K+ exchanger (apical) and Na/K ATPase (BL) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Passive: trans-epithelial voltage gradient
Active: stimulated by ALD and cAMP, into cell on BL by Na/K ATPase, exits apical membrane via K+ channels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stimulate net secretion of fluid
Stimulate Cl- or K+ secretion or inhibit Na+ absorption
Bacterial toxins: cholera, heat labible or stable, C. difficile toxin
Hormones: VIP, ACh, bradykinin, 5-HT
Immune cell products
Laxatives
Bile acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stimulate net absorption of fluid
stimulate K+ or Na+ absorption
Mineralcorticoids - stimulate K+ absorption in distal colon or Na+ absorption in distal colon (ENaC)
Glucocorticoids - stimaulte Na+ absorption in large and small (elctroneutral) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Active/Transcellular: uptake through channel, transport via calbindin, pumped out to interstitium, occurs in duodenum when intake has been low
Passive/Paracellular: concentration gradient driven; occurs in jejunum, ileum and tiny bit in colon when diet has been moderate/high |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
carrier protein in enterocytes that transports absorbed calcium from apical to basolateral membranes
requires VitD for synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Delivery Phase (defecation) |
|
Definition
mass peristaltic contraction
moves contents of sigmoid to rectum |
|
|
Term
| Detection Phase (defecation) |
|
Definition
sensory innervation triggered by distention of rectum
initiates rectospincteric reflex and voluntary events |
|
|
Term
| Discharge phase (defecation) |
|
Definition
relax internal (smooth) and external (skeletal) spinchters
contract abdomen muscles
relax pelvic flow
opening of angle between rectum and anus
rectal contraction, sigmoid perstalsis |
|
|
Term
| Hold it phase (defecation) |
|
Definition
Detection occurs, but voluntary control keeps tone in external sphincter
adaptive relaxation of rectum (like gastric accommodation) resets resting length of distal colon to remove stimulus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
90% TGs
5% phospholipids
0.5g cholesterol
lipovitamins, provitamins, toxins, carcinognes |
|
|
Term
| phosphatidylcholine (lecithin) |
|
Definition
predominate dietary phospholipid
comes from cell membranes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
a major class of phospholipid in diet
comes from cell membranes |
|
|
Term
| Endogenous "dietary" lipids |
|
Definition
phospholipids
cholesterol
bile
membrane lipids
dead bacteria lipids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
transformation of ingested solid fat and oil masses into fine oil droplets in water
involves: food prep, chewing, gastric churning, intestinal segmental contractions,
increase SA to V ratio and increases area of water-surface interface where lipases act |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
core = TGs, cholesterol esters, other nonpolar lipids
coat = membrane lipids, denatured proteins, polysacch, bile phospholipids and cholesterol |
|
|
Term
lipases (gastric, lingual)
(function, properties, sources) |
|
Definition
catalyzes hydrolysis of ester bonds in water-insoluble lipid substrates
optima at pH4, not inhibited by emulsifiers on droplets; release single FA from TGs
Lingual-from egner's gland on dorsal tongue
Gastric-from chief cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
activated by trypsin
tells upper brain that you are hungry |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
inhibited by emulsifiers, req. co-lipase to function (helps to regulate excess of lipase secreted)
only active at water-oil interface
secreted in 1000-fold excess
releases 2 FFA and one 2-monoacylglyceride |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bile-salt-stimulated
found in human milk
important for digestion in breast-fed infants (b/c they don't have pancreatic lipase)
active in small intestine (stable through stomach) |
|
|
Term
| carboxyl-ester hydroxylase |
|
Definition
requires bile salts fro activation
active against wide range of esters |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
requires bile salts for activation
active against glycerophospholipids from which they release FFA to yield lysophospholipids |
|
|
Term
| absorption of lipids (long-chain and other large products) |
|
Definition
Form: FAs, monoglycerols, cholesterol
Method: diffusion, incorporation into membrane, and some transporters
Intracell: re-esterified in SR of enterocyte makes TGs, phospholipids, cholesterol ester; jointed with ApoB48; form chylomicrons and VLDLs at Golgi; vesicles bud
Lymph:L chylomicrons and some VLDLs under certain condition |
|
|
Term
| microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) |
|
Definition
| transfers TGs, cholesterol ester and phospholipids to chylomicron particles |
|
|
Term
| absorption of lipids (short and medium chain and glycerols) |
|
Definition
| pass through enterocyte and enter blood capillary |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
catalyzes the releases of FFAs from chylomicron TGs
made by adipocytes, myocytes (striated), and macrophages |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
endothelial cell protein that transports LPL from subendothelial spaces to capillary lumen
mutation -> sever type 5 hyperchylomicronemia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cofactor for LPL
enhances its activity
but too high of levels will inactivate the enzyme |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
TG-poor and cholesterol-rich
after LPL has acted on it
taken up by liver via ApoE-LDL receptor interaction |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
synthesized and secreted by hepatocytes
binds chylomicron in liver, then binds HSPG and hepatic lipase
LDL binds to ApoE to bring chylomicron remnant into hepatocyte |
|
|
Term
| heparin sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) |
|
Definition
| helper protein that allows ApoE on a chylomicron remnant to bind hepatic lipase and the LDL receptor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
lack of nerves innervating colon
causes pseudo-obstruction (increase contraction)
Genetic disease associated with RET and EDNRB genes that help neural crest cells migrate during development |
|
|
Term
| Myopathic Idiopathic Motility Disorder |
|
Definition
reduced amplitude of GI contractions
low amplitude prominent in Phase 3 of MMC
see with muscular dystrophy, Ehlers-Danlos, scleroderma, and idiopathic pseudo-obstruction |
|
|
Term
| Neuropathic Idiopathic Motility Disorder |
|
Definition
disorganized contractions of GI
high amplitude contracts that do not propagate along tract
See with diabetic neuropathy, and idiopathic pseudo-obstruction |
|
|
Term
| Inflammatory Bowel Disease |
|
Definition
Crohn's (anywhere in GI tract) and UC (colon and rectum)
SS: vomit, abdominal pain, diarrhea
Causes: over active immune system
Tx: anti-infalmmatories, steroids, immunosuppressors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
can affect contractily of GI tract by damaging nerves
reduced insulin signaling can decrease release of stem cell factor which is a ligand for ckit that is required for ICC
results in gastroparesis
impaired motility makes glucose control more difficult |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Causes: medications, Sjogren syndrome, radiation therapy
SS: loss of taste/smell, increase in oral bacteria, weakening enamel, tooth decay |
|
|
Term
| Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) |
|
Definition
reflux of acid from stomach into esophagus (heartburn)
LES not working properly or weakened
Severe can cause inflammation, ulcers, bleeding, scaring and narrowing of esophagus
Tx: lifestyle changes, antacids, histamine blockers, proton pump blockers, tighten LES (surgery) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
impaired lower esophageal peristalsis
increased LES tone, inability to relax during swallowing
Lack of inhibitory nerve
"Bird's beak esophagus"
Tx: botox inj, nitrates, calcium channel blockers, balloon dilation (surgery) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Poor motility of stomach, impaired gastric emptying
Cause: damage to vagal nerve or to stomach smooth muscles
Assoc. w/: diabetes, surgery of upper GI, narcodics, antidepressents, and other medications
Tx: change diet, anti-emetics to control vomit, pro-kinetics to stimulate contractions, electrical pacemaker to stimulate emptying (paces the nerves) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Erosions of stomach or duodenal wall
Altered balance of aggressive and protective factors
Triggers: nicotine, gastrin, NSAIDS, H. pylori, bile acids
Tx: antacids, histamine blockers, proton pump blockers, Abx (if H. pylori, amox or clarithro) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Acute: gallstones or alcohol abuse, zymoge3ns are pathoglogically processed into active enzymes within acinar cells due to build up from inhibited secretion, injury from inflammation/vascular injury/occlusion
Chronic: develops from acute, if tissue damaged and then scars, increased risk with alcohol abuse and CF, causes abdo pain and steatorrhea
Tx: protease inhibitors, enzyme supplement to avoid malnutrition, surgery to remove blockage or increase drainage |
|
|
Term
| Cystic Fibrosis (effect on GI) |
|
Definition
mutation in CFTR results in degradation of ti
Normally used by pancreatic ductal cells to secreted HCO3-
Acinar secretions thicken and cause obstruction, fibrotic tissue eventually replaces pancreatic tissue, enzyme deficiency, steatorrhea
Tx: oral enzyme therapy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Loss of lactase
SS: diarrhea, cramps, flatulence
Colonic bacteria metabolize lactose left in lumen of contents and give off gas (CO2 and H2
Tx: avoid milk, or treat it with lactase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Seen in Celiac disease
loss of SA and brush border enzymes
Carbohydrate malabsorption results |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Load of carbs exceeds absorptive capacity
High osmolarity pulls water into stool
Ex: lactase deficiency, too much fruit juice |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Endogenous secretion of fluid and electrolytes
Caused by E. coli or Cholera toxins
Toxins -> inc. cAMP/cGMP/Ca2+ levels -> inc. Cl- secretion/inhibit NaCl absorption -> net secretion of fluid and electrolytes
Tx: oral rehydration solution |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Deficiency of Phenyalanine transporter
Very low absorption (except some from small peptide absorption)
Manifest during infancy: failure to thrive, photosensitivity, intermittent ataxia, nystagmus and tremor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Missing arginine transporter
Very low absorption (except some from small peptide absorption)
Formation of cysteine stones in kidneys/ureter/bladder due to poor reabsorption of amino acids after filtration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
rare, auto rec, deficiency of MTP
results in virtual absence of ApoB lipoproteins in plasma
Malabsorption of fat and fat-vitamins
Tx: large doses of VitE |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Deficiency in LPL
Excess TGs in blood
Associated with tons of gene mutations
Xanthomas can be found |
|
|
Term
| stellate cells (Ito cells) |
|
Definition
located in Space of Disse in liver
contain large fat droplets in cytoplasm
role in storing VitA
can be transformed into collagen-producing fibroblasts (play role fibrogenesis in liver damage and cirrhosis) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
epi cells that line bile ducts
secrete water, HCO3-
secretions are controlled by hormones (stimulated by secretin) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Zone 1: closest to oxygenated blood source
Ureagenesis, gluconeogenesis, cholesterol synthesis, bile acid synthesis, albumin synthesis, detoxification |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Zone 3: closest to central vein, low oxygen
Glycolysis, glycogen synthesis, lipogenesis, ketogenesis, glutamine metabolism, xenobiotic metabolism |
|
|
Term
| Content of Chylomicrons and remnants |
|
Definition
85% TGs
remnant = 60% TG, 20% cholesterol |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 25% phospholipid, 20% cholesterol, 5% TG, 50% protein |
|
|
Term
| cholesterol-ester-transfer-protein (CETP) |
|
Definition
| transfers cholesterol-esters from HDLs to VLDLs, IDLs, and LDLs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cholic acid, chenodeoxycholic acid
formed by hepatocytes from cholesterol |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
deoxycholic acid, lithocholic acid
formed by bacteria in GI from 1* bile acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
formed from 1* and 2* bile acids via conjugation with glycine or taurine
formed in hepatocytes
more stable than bile acids
95% are reabsorbed in distal ileum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bile salts, cholesterol, lecithin, bilirubin, xenobiotics, HCO3-, water
made by hepatocytes along apical membrane using lots of transporters |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
transporter on apical membrane of hepatocytes
moves cholesterol bidirectionally
drugs are designed to inhibit inorder to decrease absorption of cholesterol from gut |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
biphasic
PhaseI-add 1 or more polar groups
PhaseII-conjugate with other components to make more hydrophilic |
|
|
Term
| Liver + Fat Soluble Vitamin Role |
|
Definition
VitA: uptake, storage, maintenance
VitD: activation
VitE: discrimination between alpha and gamma forms (keep alpha, excrete gamma)
VitK: use it in synthesis of prothrombin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
absorbs 60-90%, then excretes 80% in complex with methalothianeins in bile
other 20% incorporated into enzymes as cofactor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| primary carrier of copper in circulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesizes proteins involved in transport of iron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Suppression of bile secretion
Biliary stuff ends up being retained in hepatocytes and regurgitated into circulation
SS: jaundice, prutis, pale stool, dark urine, increase liver enzymes in plasma, poor lipid digestion and absorption
Causes: mechanical blockage (tumor, cyst, stones, pressures) or impaired flow (viral/alcohol/drug liver disease, lymphoma, pregnancy) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
increased destruction of RBCs
unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia (common in neonates, increase heme production but immature liver)
Obstruction of bile ducts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
autosomal disease
Buildup of copper in liver, brain, kidney and cornea
Due to impaired biliary excretion of copper
Rare, but if <30y/o and have liver disease, suspect this
Gene: P-type copper transporter ATPase and maybe ceruloplasmin related
TX: chelating excess Cu with penicillamine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Relatively common hereditary disorder
Body absorbs excessive iron in diet
Free iron pool -> formation of hemosiderin granules -> toxic to hepatocytes |
|
|
Term
gallbladder
(function, mechanism, transporters) |
|
Definition
stores and concentrates bile between meals
Isotonic reabsorption of NaCl and HCO3-
Has Na/H exchanger and HCO3-/Cl- exchangers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
located near periphery of islet
produce glucagon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
most numerous cell type of islet
located in center of islet
produce insulin and amyline |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
targets liver mostly
triggers glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and ketogenesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
suppresses glucagon secretion
slows intestinal absorption |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
located between beta-cells and surrounding mantle of alpha-cells
produces somatostatin |
|
|
Term
| somatostain (from delta cells) effects |
|
Definition
inhibits secretion of hormones (i.e. insulin, glucagon, TSH, etc)
paracrine effects |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
least abundant cell type of islet
located between beta and alpha cells
produce pancreatic polypeptide |
|
|
Term
| pancreatic polypeptide effects |
|
Definition
reduces gastric emptying
decrease upper intestinal motility
inhibits exocrine pancreas secretion
helps insulin by slowing digestive system and keeping low load for insulin to act on |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Failure to produce insulin
Caused by autoimmune destruction of Beta-cells
Usually dx in children/young adult
Tx: insulin therapy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Insulin resistance (failure to respond to insulin)
Might also have relative insulin insufficiency
Most Americans with DM have type 2 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
affects about 4% of women
caused by transient insulin resistance
can be permanent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Blood glucose are higher than n0ormal but not high enough for Type 2 dx
Insulin resistance with B-cell coompensation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
product of gene->mRNA->protein of insulin gene
contains leader sequence, peptide domains A, B and C |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
formed from preproinsulin by cleavage of leader sequence in the ER
consists of peptide domains A, B and C |
|
|
Term
| insulin (as sytnesis product) |
|
Definition
formed from proinsulin by cleavage of peptide domain C catazlyed by protease in secretion granule vesicles
consists of peptide domains A and B |
|
|
Term
| pathway of insulin secretion |
|
Definition
glucose enters B-cell via GLUT2
increase ATP/ADP ratio
inhibits K+ channels
depolarizes membrane
calcium influx
vesicles merge with membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
glucagon, B-adrenergic agonsists
parasympathetics (ACh)
incretin response: CCK, GIP, GLP-1 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Sympathetic (NE, alpha-adrenergic stimulation)
Somatostatin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
increase glycogen synthesis
increase protein synthesis
increase lipid synthesis
decrease gluconeogenesis
decrease ketogenesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
increase glucose uptake (GLUT4)
increase FA synthesis
increase glycerol phosphate synthesis
increase TG deposition
increase K+ uptake
activates LPL
decreases hormone-sensitive lipase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
increase glucose uptake (GLUT4)
increase glycogen synthesis
increase amino acid uptake
increase protein synthesis
increase K+ uptake
decrease protein catabolism
decrease release of gluconeogenic amino acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
MAP kinase cascade - gene expression
mTOR and p70 - protein synthesis
BAD - anti-apoptosis
PDE3B - anti-lipolysis
GSK3 - glycogen synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Insulin resistance dx criteria |
|
Definition
Fasting plasma glucose = 100-125mg/dl
Oral glucose tolerance = 140-1999mg/dl after two hours |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
disorder of energy utilization and storage
Req. 3/5: central obesity, elevated BP, elevated fasting plasma glucose, high serum TGs, low HDL levels
Related to genetic and environmental influences |
|
|
Term
| Insulin resistance (Type 2 DM) treatments |
|
Definition
Biguanides (metformin)
Sulfonylureas (metlitinides, nateglinides)
Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (Acarbose)
Thiazolidindiones (rosiglitazone) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
insulin resistance/type 2 treatment
ex: metformin
sensitizes body (mostly liver) to insulin that is already being made by pancreas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
insulin resistance/type 2 treatment
stimulate B-cell to secrete more insulin |
|
|
Term
| Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors |
|
Definition
insulin resistance/type 2 treatment
slows/blocks breakdown of carbs, thus slows the rise in blood glucose levels following a meal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
insulin resistance/type 2 treatment
helps insulin work better in muscle and fat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
clinical definition for resting metabolism given in kcal/hr/m^2 of body surface
measured under specific conditions that ensure "resting" state |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
4.1kcal/g in carbs
9.4kcal/g in lipid
4.3kcal/g in protein |
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Term
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Definition
75g liver glycogen
300g muscle glycogen
14g adipose lipids
9.8g protein, only 1/2 available as energy |
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Term
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Definition
no set amount req.
want to be small amount of caloric intake
req. linoleate and linolenate intake (req. FA) |
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Term
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Definition
| family of proteins that maintain lipid droplet structure and function in eukaryotic cells |
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Term
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Definition
| histamine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine |
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Term
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Definition
| A, B1(thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3(niacin), B6(pyridoxine), B12(cobalamin), C, D, E, K, folate, biotin, pantothenic acid |
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Term
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Definition
| calcium, chromium, copper, iron, iodine, magnesium, manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, selenium, zinc |
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Term
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Definition
promote feeding
Neuropeptide Y |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| long-term factor that suppresses hunger, protein secreted by adipocytes that binds to hypothalamic receptors |
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Term
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Definition
| usually develops during first few years of life and is maintained therafter |
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Term
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Definition
| most often associated with diabetes and other age-related metabolic alterations |
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