• child-caregiver
• emotional bond across time
• comfort, well being 

• test of behavorist theory
• result: comfort won
• stressful situations- comfort won

• ethological/evolutionary view
• preattachment phase
• attachment-in-the-making
• clear-cut attachment
• formation of reciprocal relationship

• birth to 6 weeks
• looking into infants eyes
• smiling
• gurgling noise made by babies
• crying
• grasping 

• 6 weeks to 6-8 months
• preference for mother/primary care giver
• more happiness around familiar people
• trust
• not afraid of new people 

• 6-8 months to 18-24 months 
• strong separation anxiety
• attempt to follow/hang onto parent
• secure base behavior 

• 18-24 months and up
• sense of secruity and confidence with absence of parent
• less distress upon departure 

• 12-18 months, average @ 15
• parent and child play with toys
• stranger enters the room
• parent leaves room, stranger responds to baby
• parent returns, stranger leaves room
• parent leaves room
• stranger enters room and offers comfort
• parent returns 

• secure base behavior 
• reaction to parent's departure
• reaction to stranger
• reunion
• 65%

• indifferent to both parent and stranger 
• 20%

• cling to parent
• do not go out and explore
• very distressed when parent leaves
• not comforted when parent returns 
• 10-15%

• no consistent way of dealing with stress of situation
• at reunion, show variety of confused, contradictory behaviors
• look away while being held
• approach with flat, depressed expression
• may cry unexpectedly after being calmed down
• parent is a source of fear
• could be a sign of abuse
• 5%

• secure attachment most common throughout the world 
• cultures with one primary caregiver- more resistent attachment 

• opportunity
• infant characteristics 
• quality of care 

• raised without peers
• immature play
• exessive aggression and fearfulness
• less cooperation

• support/validation
• discussion of emotions 
• less loneliness
• ease periods of school transition
• buffer against unpleasant experiences 

• with peers but without mother
• somewhat resorative
• excessive clinginess to peer and anxiety in novel environments
• inappropriate behavior with novel peers 

• play non-socially with peers before 12 months 
• 1-2 years: imitate each other, take turns, share toys 
• 2 years: peer preferences, joint play goals, cooperation

• move to more social
• nonsocial activity: solitary play, looking on
• parallel play: play near each other, with smiliar materials, trying not to influence each other's behavior
• associative play: seperate activities but exchange toys and may comment on each other's behavior
• cooperative play: common goal 

• friends you like spending time with
• friend as a "handy playmate"
• defined by actual activities (playing and sharing)
• instrumental and concrete 

• mutual trust and assistance
• based on kindness and trust
• companionships, loyalty beginning to be important 

• intimacy/mutual understanding
• loyalty, sharing feelings/relieving psychological stress
• trust/feedback 

• many positive and few negative comments 
• prosocial- well liked, not necessarily high status, cooperative, friendly, sociable, helpful, sensitive to others
• antisocial (may become controversial)- ex: mean girls 

• 40-50%
• prone to hostile, threatening behavior
• prone to physical aggression, disruptive behavior, delinquency
• aggressive behavior itself may cause rejection
• may ultimately form peer group with other aggressive children, switch to "controversial" 

• many negative and few positive comments
• associated with the most risk
• 10-25%
• socially withdrawn, fearful, timid
• may be victimized
• feel lonely, isolated 

• more likely to be motivated by getting even, showing others up
• less skilled at finding good strategies for social problem solving
• high confidence in social skills, overestimate their own likeability

withdrawn

• low confidence in social skills, blame selves for social failure

• few positive or negative comments
• unnoticed 
• less sociable but less disruptive than other children
• not particularly anxious of inhibited 

• many positive and many negative comments
• tend to be aggressive, disruptive, prone to anger
• cooperative, socialable, good at sports, funny
• group leaders
• viewed as arrogant and snobbish

• no longer influential
• individual buffeted by many external and internal forces they cannot control
• child is passive
• continuity/discontinuity
• individual differences
• tenets are untestable
• lasting contributions: role of early experience, role of unconscious 

• drives 

• rational and logical
• channels needs of id 

superego

• controls behavior on basis of what is right/wrong
• conscience/morality

• oral stage
• anal stage
• phallic stage
• latency period
• gential stage 

• each stage must be passed successfully
• each stage has a crisis that must be overcome
• eight stages

• non active view of the child
• experience is key for differences
• continuous change
• mechanisms of change: reinforcement, observation

• Watson
• systematic densensitization to phobias
• parenting advice: schedules 

operant conditioning 

• Skinner
• behavior as sum of reinforcement
• parenting advice: don't give in, behavior modification

• observation and imitation, "modeling"
• reinforcement is not necessary
• observing reinforcement of others is sufficent
• larger role for child's own dispositions 

• children learned from reinforcement in film
• more spontaneous violence for reward or neutral groups 
• in all groups, they learned the specific aggressive behaviors by observation

• chilren are active processors of social information (limited by cognitive abilities)
• active view of child
• central developmental issues: continuity/discontinuity, individual differences 

• inspired by Piaget
• viewpoints of others are essential to social understanding
• as chldren become less egocentric, they become more able to understand other's perspectives
• develop over 5 stages from 6-12

• influenced by information processing theories
• as children assess a situation and solve social problems, they use preexisiting knowledge, concepts, and attitudes
• encode
• interpret social cues
• formulate goal
• generate strategies
• evaluate likely success
• enact behavior 

• children who get along well with peers: interpret social cues accurately, formulate goals that enhance relationships, have a repertoire of effective problem solving strategies
• children with peer difficulties often hold biased social expectations, attend selectively to social cues, misinterpret behavior 

• mastery oriented pattern: do not blame self, increase effort to succeed, intrinsic desire to learn
• helpless pattern: blame selves, do not persist

• failure (and success) due to modifiable factors
• incremental view of ability (changeable)
• focus on process
• believe they can succeed if they keep trying 

• ability is a fixed trait
• focus on outcome rather than process 
• assume failure due to lack of intelligence 
• success due to luck (or to high intelligence)
• give up 

• considers the influence of all aspects of the environment, including fabric of society
• microsystem- personal relationships
• mesosystem- connection among microsystems
• exosystem- setting that children are not directly a part of but that still influence their development
• macarosystem- larger context of society
• chronosystem- changes in culture over time 
• bidirectional effects 

ethological/evolutionary theories 

• ethological- study of natural animal behavior, focus on behaviors with biological origin
• evolutionary- focus on adaptiveness of behavior in "era of evolutionary adaptiveness"

• organisms act in ways that preserve their genes 
• value own life over others'
• value lifes of relatives
• willing to devote resources to offspring
• parental investment theory