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Definition
| The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system recieve and represent stimulus energies from our environment. |
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| THe process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recgonize meaningful objects and events. |
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| Analysis that beings with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information. |
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| Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. |
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| Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret. |
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| The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. |
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| The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. |
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| A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. |
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| Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness |
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| the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response. |
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| The minimum difference between two stimuli require for detection 50% of the time. We experience this as a just noticable difference (jnd) |
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| The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a given percentage (rather than a given amount) |
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| Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. |
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| A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. |
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| the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission. |
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| the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. |
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| the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude |
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| the adjustable opening of the center of the eye through which light enters. |
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| a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the puopil and controls the size of the pupil opening. |
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Definition
| the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. |
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| the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information. |
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| the process by which the eye's lens hcanges shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. |
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| retinal receptors that detect black, white, and grey; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. |
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| retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. they detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. |
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| the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. |
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| the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there. |
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| the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster. |
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| nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus such as shape, angle, or movement. |
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Definition
| the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step by step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. |
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| Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory |
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Definition
| the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color. |
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Definition
| the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stiumlated by red and inhibited by green. |
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Definition
| an organized whole. these psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. |
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| the organization of the visual field into objects athat stand out from their surroundings. |
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| the perceptual tendency to organize stiumli into coherent groups. |
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| the ability to see objects in three dimensions altoough the images that strike the retina are 2-D; allows us to judge distance |
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| a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. |
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| depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes. |
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| a binocular cue for perceiving depth: by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. |
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| depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, vailable to either eye alone. |
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| an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. |
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| perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness and color) even as illumination and retinal images change. |
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| perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wave lengths reflected by the object. |
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| in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. |
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| the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors |
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| learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning) |
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| any event or situation that evokes a response |
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| the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. |
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| a type of learning in which one learning to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. |
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the view that psychology:
(1) should be an objective science that (2) studeis behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). |
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| behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. |
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| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. |
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| unconditioned response (UR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occuring response (such as salivation) to an undconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). |
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| unconditioned stimulus (US) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response (UR) |
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| conditioned response (CR) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). |
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Definition
| in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the vonditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. |
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| higher-order conditioning |
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Definition
| a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired wiht a new neutral stiumulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. |
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Definition
| the diminishing of a conditioned response; occus in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. |
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| the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. |
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| the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. |
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| in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. |
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| learning that certain events occur together. the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its condquence (as in operant conditioning). |
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| any event or situation that evokes a response. |
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| a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or dimiinished if followed by a punisher. |
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| Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and taht behaviors followed by unfavorable conseuqences become less likely. |
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| in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can minipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. |
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| in operant conditioning, any event that strenghtens the behavior it follows. |
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| an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. |
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Definition
| increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. a positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. |
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Definition
| increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. a negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response |
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Definition
| an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. |
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| a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. |
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| a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. |
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Definition
| reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. |
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| partial (intermittent) reinforcement |
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Definition
| reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower aquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule taht reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. |
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| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
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| variable-interval schedule |
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Definition
| in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredicatble time intervals. |
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| an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows. |
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| behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus |
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| beavior that operates on the enviornment, producing consequences. |
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Definition
| the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. |
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| a mental representation of the layout of one's enviornment.For exmaple, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. |
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| learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. |
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| a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. |
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| a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. |
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| learning by observing others. |
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| the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior |
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| frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. the brain's mirror of another's action may enable imitation and empathy. |
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| positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior. |
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| the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
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| a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. |
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| a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. |
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| a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. |
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| the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning. |
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| the retention of encoded information over time |
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| the process of getting information out of memory storage |
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| the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. |
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| activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. |
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| the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
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| a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. |
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| memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" |
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| encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
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| unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. |
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| retention independent of conscious recollection |
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| a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. |
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| a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. |
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| organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. |
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| memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. |
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| the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retnetion than is achieved through massed study or practice. |
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| enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. |
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| encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words |
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| encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. |
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| a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage |
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| retention idependent of conscious recollection. |
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| long-term potentiation (LTP) |
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Definition
| an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. |
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Definition
| the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. |
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| the tendency to recall experiences that are consisten with one's current good or bad mood. |
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| our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. |
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| an inability to form new memories |
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| an inability to retrieve information from one's past. |
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| the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. |
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| the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information |
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| in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. |
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| incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. |
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| attributing to the wrong source an event we have experiences, heard about, read about, or imagined. at the heart of many false memories. |
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| that eerie sense that "i've experienced this before." cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. |
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| mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations |
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| a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores. |
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| a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore meausred by every task on an intelligence test. |
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| a statistical procesdure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test ;used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score. |
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| a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing. |
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| the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. |
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| the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. |
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| a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; te chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year old is said to have a mental age of 8. |
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| the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test. |
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| intelligence quotient (IQ) |
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Definition
| defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) mulitplied by 100. |
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| a test designed to assess what a person has learned. |
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| a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. |
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| Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) |
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Definition
| the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. |
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| defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. |
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| the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes. |
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| the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting. |
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| the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. |
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| the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest. |
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| the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. |
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| a group of people from a given time period |
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| crystallized intelligence |
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Definition
| our accusmulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age |
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| our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood. |
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| a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound |
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| a condition of mild to sever intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. |
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| the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. |
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| a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. |
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